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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Svensson, Teresia;

    Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and especially chlorinated VOCs (VOCls) are regarded as en viron mental risk substances in water bodies due to their toxic characteristics. Even in the atmo­sphere they highly impact atmospheric chemistry, e.g. degrading the ozone layer. Several studies have convincingly identified a number of natural VOCl sources thereby challenging the view of VOCls as only produced by humans. Yet, fundamental knowledge is still missing concerning the emission, distribution and the natural abundance of VOCls, especially regarding the high spatial and temporal variability of emissions from terrestrial sources. In the nuclear industry, Cl­36 is a dose­dominating radionuclide in some waste, and this adds to the need to better understand the processes, transport and fate of chlorine in the bio sphere. In this report 38 studies on VOCl flux measurement estimates were reviewed to summarize the current knowledge on spatio­temporal variations of different VOCls and various measurement tech niques. Chloromethane is the most studied VOCl compound and chloroform, the second most studied. A few other studies have estimated fluxes of additional VOCls such as tetrachloromethane (CCl4), methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3), tetrachloroethane (C2H2Cl4), freons (CFCs), chloroethane (C2H5Cl), bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl2). Studies were conducted in climates and terrestrial ecosystems ranging from arctic tundra to tropical rainforest but most studies focus on the temperate climate region. Wetlands and coastal systems dominate the studied ecosystems. Flux chambers are the most common method for investigation of the soil­atmosphere exchange of VOCls, but a few studies used soil gas profiles and one the Relaxed Eddy Accumulation (REA) technique. Methodological uncer­tainties are mainly related to sample contamination, few replicates, chamber design, and chamber deployment (the time of measurement) effects on the soil­atmosphere exchange itself. Despite the many challenges in measuring VOCls and estimating the fluxes, a substantial part of the chlorine in terrestrial ecosystems, and especially from wetlands and coastal areas, is emitted to the atmosphere as VOCls. In inland forested ecosystems, the release of Cl to the atmosphere could be as much as 0.1 g m–2, which is 40 % of the wet deposition and there are studies that suggest that freshwater wetlands are much larger source of chlorine in the atmosphere than previously understood. Flyktiga organiska föreningar (VOC) och i synnerhet klorerade VOCs (VOCls) betraktas som miljö­farliga ämnen i vattenmiljöer på grund av sina toxiska egenskaper, men även i atmosfären eftersom de har en stor inverkan på atmosfärskemin, t ex genom att påverka ozonskiktet. Ett antal studier har hittat flera naturliga källor för VOCl och därmed förändrat synen på VOCls som endast producerade av människor. Trots det så saknas kunskaperna fortfarande om utsläpp de naturliga flödena av VOCls, särskilt när det gäller variation i tid och rum från terrestra miljöer. I kärnkraftsindustrin är Cl­36 en dosdominerande radionuklid för en del avfallströmmar. Därför behövs en bättre förståelse för omsättningen av klor i ytnära ekosystem. Klormetan är den mest studerade av VOCl och den näst mest studerade är kloroform. Några andra studier har uppskattat flöde av andra VOCl som tetraklormetan (CCl4), metylkloroform (CH3CCl3), tetrakloretan (C2H2Cl4), freoner (CFC), kloretan (C2H5Cl), bromodiklormetan (CHBrCl2). Studier genomfördes i klimat och markbaserade ekosystem som sträcker sig från arktisk tundra till tropisk regnskog, men de flesta studier fokuserar på tempererat klimatområde. Våtmarker och kustsystem är de studerande dominerande ekosystemen. Kammare är den vanligaste metoden för att uppskatta flöden av av VOCls, men det finns också några studier med koncentrationsgradienter i markprofiler, och en form av mikrometeorologimetodik. De metodologiska osäkerheterna som diskuteras kretsar i första hand kring kontamination, få replikat, design av fältmätningar och fältmätningarnas påverkan på markprocesser och därmed indirekt på flödena. Trots de många utmaningarna för att mäta VOCls och uppskatta flödena är det klart att flödet av klor till atmosfären är ett viktigt flöde i klors biogeo­kemiska cykel i terrestra ekosystem. Skogsekosystem kan avge så mycket som 0.1 g m–2, vilket är 40 % av våtdepositionen av klorid och det finns studier som tyder på att våtmarker är en långt mycket större källa till klor i atmosfären än man tidigare trott.

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    Authors: Johansson, Nils;

    Ända sedan den första gruvan i de paleolitiska samhällena för 450 000 år sedan (Lewis och Clark, 1964) har människan successivt flyttat metallresurser från jordskorpan in till samhället i byggnader, infrastruktur, produkter och avfallshögar. Det pågår således ett geologiskt skifte (Johansson, 2013), som accelererade i samband med industrialiseringen, där metaller omlokaliseras till den bebyggda miljön på bekostnad av de geologiska reserverna. Vissa forskare menar att människan har blivit en geologisk kraft så till den grad att för vissa metaller som järn och koppar är mängderna jämförbara i samhället med reserverna i jordskorpan (Lichtensteiger, 2002;. Elshkaki et al, 2004; Spatari et al. 2005, Müller et al, 2006; Halada et al, 2009; Johansson, 2013). Soptippar, eller mer formellt deponier, är ett av förråden ovanför jordytan som har fått allt mer uppmärksamhet, eftersom de i sin roll av att vara i slutet av materialflödet fångar upp en stor andel av metallerna på ett avgränsat område. Om deponier definieras i vid mening till att inkludera alla former av avfallsupplag, dvs. även till exempel gruvavfall, så återfinns troligen 50 % av alla uppgrävda metaller i dessa inaktiva förråd (Johansson et al., 2013; Kapur, 2006; Graedel and Kapur 2006). Ur ett globalt perspektiv innebär detta att exempelvis mängden koppar i avfallsupplag motsvarar hälften av de kvarvarande mängderna i jordskorpans reserver (Johansson et al., 2013). Även om avfallsupplag avgränsas till inflöden av industriellt avfall (exklusive gruvavfall) och hushållsavfall så är metallinnehållet signifikant. Materialflödesanalyser av koppar och järn har påvisat att mellan 10-20 % av metallerna ovanför jordytan finns i dessa förråd (Johansson et al., 2013). Visserligen är deponering av hushållsavfall idag begränsad, men sedan industrialiseringen har deponeringen varit den vanligaste avfallshaneringsmetoden i Sverige. Detta innebär att i stort sett varje by har sin egen soptipp med stora mängder metaller och andra resurser placerade på hög. Uppskattningsvis finns över 4000 kommunala soptippar i Sverige med varierande storlek (Frändegård et al., 2013). Vid sidan av kommunala soptippar finns det även industriella soptippar som är placerade direkt i anknytning till en verksamhet. Uppskattningar har antytt att det finns upp till 1000 industriella soptippar i Sverige. Till skillnad från hushållsavfall deponeras fortfarande signifikanta mängder industriellt avfall i form av till exempel schaktmassor och aska (Naturvårdsverket, 2012a). Det saknas dock mer detaljerade studier av mängderna av olika metaller i industriella och kommunala deponier samt de tekniska och institutionella förutsättningarna för att bryta dessa metaller. Kan deponier vara framtidens gruvor? Denna text är en del av ett regeringsuppdrag för Naturvårdsverket och SGU.

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    Authors: Ammenberg, Jonas; Feizaghaii, Roozbeh; Helgstrand, Anton; Eklund, Mats; +1 Authors

    This report contains information about a research project lead by researchers from Environmental Technology and Management at Linköping University in Sweden. It has been conducted in cooperation with staff from the global cement company CEMEX. The study has been focused on three cement plants in the western parts of Germany, referred to as CEMEX Cluster West. They form a kind of work alliance, together producing several intermediate products and final products. One of the plants is a cement plant with a kiln, while the other two can be described as grinding and mixing stations. The overall aim has been to contribute to a better understanding of the climate performance of different ways of producing cement, and different cement products. An important objective was to systematically assess different cement sites, and production approaches, from a climate perspective, thereby making it easier for the company to analyze different options for improvements. Theoretical and methodological aspects related to the fields of Industrial Ecology (IE) and Industrial Symbiosis (IS) have played an important role. A common way of making cement is to burn limestone in a cement kiln. This leads to the formation of cement clinker, which is then grinded and composes the main component of Ordinary Portland Cement. One very important phase of the production of clinker is the process of calcination, which takes place in the kiln. In this chemical reaction calcium carbonate decomposes at high temperature and calcium oxide and carbon dioxide are produced. The calcination is of high importance since it implies that carbon bound in minerals is transformed to CO2. A large portion of the CO2 emissions related to clinker production is coming from the calcination process. Both clinker and Ordinary Portland Cement (CEM I 42.5) were studied. However, there are other ways of making cement, where the clinker can be substituted by other materials. Within Cluster West, granulated blast furnace slag from the iron and steel industry is used to a large extent as such a clinker substitute. This slag needs to be grinded, but an important difference compared to clinker is that it has already been treated thermally (during iron production) and therefore does not have to be burned in a kiln. With the purpose to include products with clearly different share of clinker substitutes, the project also comprised CEM III/A 42.5 (blended cement, about 50% clinker) and CEM III/B 42.5 N-. (blended cement, about 27% clinker). To sum up, this means that the study involved “traditional”, rather linear, ways of making cement, but also two more synergistic alternatives, where a byproduct is utilized to a large extent instead of clinker. The methodology is mostly based on Life Lycle Assessment (LCA), from cradle-to-gate, using the SimaPro software. This means that the cement products have been studied from the extraction of raw materials until they were ready for delivery at the “gate” of Cluster West. The functional unit was 1 tonne of product. A lot of data was collected regarding flows of material and energy for the year of 2009. In addition, some information concerning 1997 was also acquired. Most of the used data has been provided by CEMEX, but to be able to cover upstream parts of the life cycle data from the Ecoinvent database has also been utilized. The extensive data concerning 2009 formed the base for the project and made it possible to study the selected products thoroughly for this year. However, the intention was also to assess other versions of the product system – Cluster West in 1997 and also a possible, improved future case. For this purpose, a conceptual LCA method was developed that made it possible to consider different products as well as different conditions for the product system. Having conducted the baseline LCA, important results could be generated based on knowledge about six key performance indicators (KPIs) regarding overall information about materials, the fuel mix and the electricity mix. The conceptual LCA method could be used for other products and versions of Cluster West, without collecting large amounts of additional specific Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data. The developed conceptual LCA method really simplified the rather complex Cluster West production system. Instead of having to consider hundreds of parameters, the information about the six KPIs was sufficient to estimate the emissions from different products produced in different versions of the production system (Cluster West). The results showed that the clinker produced at Cluster West is competitive from a climate perspective, causing CO2-eq missions that are a couple of percent lower than the world average. During the twelve year period from 1997 to 2009 these emissions became about 12 percent lower, which was mainly achieved by production efficiency measures but also via changing fuels. However, the most interesting results concern the blended cement products. It was manifested that it is very advantageous from a climate perspective to substitute clinker with granulated blast furnace slag, mainly since it reduces the emissions accounted related to calcination. For example, the CO2-eq emissions related to CEM III/B product were estimated to be 65 percent lower than those for CEM I. A framework for identifying and evaluating options for improvement has been developed and applied. Based on that framework the present production system was analyzed and illustrated, and different measures for reducing the climate impact were shown and evaluated. Two possible scenarios were defined and the conceptual LCA model used to estimate their climate performance. The authors’ recommendation is for CEMEX to continue to increase the share of CEM III (the share of good clinker substitutes), and to make efforts to shift the focus on the market from clinker and cement plants to different types of cement (or concrete) or even better to focus on the lifecycle of the final products such as buildings and constructions. Information and measures at the plant level are not sufficient to compare products or to significantly reduce the climate impact related to cement. To achieve important reductions of the emissions, measures and knowledge at a higher industrial symbiosis level are needed.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Svensson, Teresia;

    Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and especially chlorinated VOCs (VOCls) are regarded as en viron mental risk substances in water bodies due to their toxic characteristics. Even in the atmo­sphere they highly impact atmospheric chemistry, e.g. degrading the ozone layer. Several studies have convincingly identified a number of natural VOCl sources thereby challenging the view of VOCls as only produced by humans. Yet, fundamental knowledge is still missing concerning the emission, distribution and the natural abundance of VOCls, especially regarding the high spatial and temporal variability of emissions from terrestrial sources. In the nuclear industry, Cl­36 is a dose­dominating radionuclide in some waste, and this adds to the need to better understand the processes, transport and fate of chlorine in the bio sphere. In this report 38 studies on VOCl flux measurement estimates were reviewed to summarize the current knowledge on spatio­temporal variations of different VOCls and various measurement tech niques. Chloromethane is the most studied VOCl compound and chloroform, the second most studied. A few other studies have estimated fluxes of additional VOCls such as tetrachloromethane (CCl4), methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3), tetrachloroethane (C2H2Cl4), freons (CFCs), chloroethane (C2H5Cl), bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl2). Studies were conducted in climates and terrestrial ecosystems ranging from arctic tundra to tropical rainforest but most studies focus on the temperate climate region. Wetlands and coastal systems dominate the studied ecosystems. Flux chambers are the most common method for investigation of the soil­atmosphere exchange of VOCls, but a few studies used soil gas profiles and one the Relaxed Eddy Accumulation (REA) technique. Methodological uncer­tainties are mainly related to sample contamination, few replicates, chamber design, and chamber deployment (the time of measurement) effects on the soil­atmosphere exchange itself. Despite the many challenges in measuring VOCls and estimating the fluxes, a substantial part of the chlorine in terrestrial ecosystems, and especially from wetlands and coastal areas, is emitted to the atmosphere as VOCls. In inland forested ecosystems, the release of Cl to the atmosphere could be as much as 0.1 g m–2, which is 40 % of the wet deposition and there are studies that suggest that freshwater wetlands are much larger source of chlorine in the atmosphere than previously understood. Flyktiga organiska föreningar (VOC) och i synnerhet klorerade VOCs (VOCls) betraktas som miljö­farliga ämnen i vattenmiljöer på grund av sina toxiska egenskaper, men även i atmosfären eftersom de har en stor inverkan på atmosfärskemin, t ex genom att påverka ozonskiktet. Ett antal studier har hittat flera naturliga källor för VOCl och därmed förändrat synen på VOCls som endast producerade av människor. Trots det så saknas kunskaperna fortfarande om utsläpp de naturliga flödena av VOCls, särskilt när det gäller variation i tid och rum från terrestra miljöer. I kärnkraftsindustrin är Cl­36 en dosdominerande radionuklid för en del avfallströmmar. Därför behövs en bättre förståelse för omsättningen av klor i ytnära ekosystem. Klormetan är den mest studerade av VOCl och den näst mest studerade är kloroform. Några andra studier har uppskattat flöde av andra VOCl som tetraklormetan (CCl4), metylkloroform (CH3CCl3), tetrakloretan (C2H2Cl4), freoner (CFC), kloretan (C2H5Cl), bromodiklormetan (CHBrCl2). Studier genomfördes i klimat och markbaserade ekosystem som sträcker sig från arktisk tundra till tropisk regnskog, men de flesta studier fokuserar på tempererat klimatområde. Våtmarker och kustsystem är de studerande dominerande ekosystemen. Kammare är den vanligaste metoden för att uppskatta flöden av av VOCls, men det finns också några studier med koncentrationsgradienter i markprofiler, och en form av mikrometeorologimetodik. De metodologiska osäkerheterna som diskuteras kretsar i första hand kring kontamination, få replikat, design av fältmätningar och fältmätningarnas påverkan på markprocesser och därmed indirekt på flödena. Trots de många utmaningarna för att mäta VOCls och uppskatta flödena är det klart att flödet av klor till atmosfären är ett viktigt flöde i klors biogeo­kemiska cykel i terrestra ekosystem. Skogsekosystem kan avge så mycket som 0.1 g m–2, vilket är 40 % av våtdepositionen av klorid och det finns studier som tyder på att våtmarker är en långt mycket större källa till klor i atmosfären än man tidigare trott.

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    Authors: Johansson, Nils;

    Ända sedan den första gruvan i de paleolitiska samhällena för 450 000 år sedan (Lewis och Clark, 1964) har människan successivt flyttat metallresurser från jordskorpan in till samhället i byggnader, infrastruktur, produkter och avfallshögar. Det pågår således ett geologiskt skifte (Johansson, 2013), som accelererade i samband med industrialiseringen, där metaller omlokaliseras till den bebyggda miljön på bekostnad av de geologiska reserverna. Vissa forskare menar att människan har blivit en geologisk kraft så till den grad att för vissa metaller som järn och koppar är mängderna jämförbara i samhället med reserverna i jordskorpan (Lichtensteiger, 2002;. Elshkaki et al, 2004; Spatari et al. 2005, Müller et al, 2006; Halada et al, 2009; Johansson, 2013). Soptippar, eller mer formellt deponier, är ett av förråden ovanför jordytan som har fått allt mer uppmärksamhet, eftersom de i sin roll av att vara i slutet av materialflödet fångar upp en stor andel av metallerna på ett avgränsat område. Om deponier definieras i vid mening till att inkludera alla former av avfallsupplag, dvs. även till exempel gruvavfall, så återfinns troligen 50 % av alla uppgrävda metaller i dessa inaktiva förråd (Johansson et al., 2013; Kapur, 2006; Graedel and Kapur 2006). Ur ett globalt perspektiv innebär detta att exempelvis mängden koppar i avfallsupplag motsvarar hälften av de kvarvarande mängderna i jordskorpans reserver (Johansson et al., 2013). Även om avfallsupplag avgränsas till inflöden av industriellt avfall (exklusive gruvavfall) och hushållsavfall så är metallinnehållet signifikant. Materialflödesanalyser av koppar och järn har påvisat att mellan 10-20 % av metallerna ovanför jordytan finns i dessa förråd (Johansson et al., 2013). Visserligen är deponering av hushållsavfall idag begränsad, men sedan industrialiseringen har deponeringen varit den vanligaste avfallshaneringsmetoden i Sverige. Detta innebär att i stort sett varje by har sin egen soptipp med stora mängder metaller och andra resurser placerade på hög. Uppskattningsvis finns över 4000 kommunala soptippar i Sverige med varierande storlek (Frändegård et al., 2013). Vid sidan av kommunala soptippar finns det även industriella soptippar som är placerade direkt i anknytning till en verksamhet. Uppskattningar har antytt att det finns upp till 1000 industriella soptippar i Sverige. Till skillnad från hushållsavfall deponeras fortfarande signifikanta mängder industriellt avfall i form av till exempel schaktmassor och aska (Naturvårdsverket, 2012a). Det saknas dock mer detaljerade studier av mängderna av olika metaller i industriella och kommunala deponier samt de tekniska och institutionella förutsättningarna för att bryta dessa metaller. Kan deponier vara framtidens gruvor? Denna text är en del av ett regeringsuppdrag för Naturvårdsverket och SGU.

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    Authors: Ammenberg, Jonas; Feizaghaii, Roozbeh; Helgstrand, Anton; Eklund, Mats; +1 Authors

    This report contains information about a research project lead by researchers from Environmental Technology and Management at Linköping University in Sweden. It has been conducted in cooperation with staff from the global cement company CEMEX. The study has been focused on three cement plants in the western parts of Germany, referred to as CEMEX Cluster West. They form a kind of work alliance, together producing several intermediate products and final products. One of the plants is a cement plant with a kiln, while the other two can be described as grinding and mixing stations. The overall aim has been to contribute to a better understanding of the climate performance of different ways of producing cement, and different cement products. An important objective was to systematically assess different cement sites, and production approaches, from a climate perspective, thereby making it easier for the company to analyze different options for improvements. Theoretical and methodological aspects related to the fields of Industrial Ecology (IE) and Industrial Symbiosis (IS) have played an important role. A common way of making cement is to burn limestone in a cement kiln. This leads to the formation of cement clinker, which is then grinded and composes the main component of Ordinary Portland Cement. One very important phase of the production of clinker is the process of calcination, which takes place in the kiln. In this chemical reaction calcium carbonate decomposes at high temperature and calcium oxide and carbon dioxide are produced. The calcination is of high importance since it implies that carbon bound in minerals is transformed to CO2. A large portion of the CO2 emissions related to clinker production is coming from the calcination process. Both clinker and Ordinary Portland Cement (CEM I 42.5) were studied. However, there are other ways of making cement, where the clinker can be substituted by other materials. Within Cluster West, granulated blast furnace slag from the iron and steel industry is used to a large extent as such a clinker substitute. This slag needs to be grinded, but an important difference compared to clinker is that it has already been treated thermally (during iron production) and therefore does not have to be burned in a kiln. With the purpose to include products with clearly different share of clinker substitutes, the project also comprised CEM III/A 42.5 (blended cement, about 50% clinker) and CEM III/B 42.5 N-. (blended cement, about 27% clinker). To sum up, this means that the study involved “traditional”, rather linear, ways of making cement, but also two more synergistic alternatives, where a byproduct is utilized to a large extent instead of clinker. The methodology is mostly based on Life Lycle Assessment (LCA), from cradle-to-gate, using the SimaPro software. This means that the cement products have been studied from the extraction of raw materials until they were ready for delivery at the “gate” of Cluster West. The functional unit was 1 tonne of product. A lot of data was collected regarding flows of material and energy for the year of 2009. In addition, some information concerning 1997 was also acquired. Most of the used data has been provided by CEMEX, but to be able to cover upstream parts of the life cycle data from the Ecoinvent database has also been utilized. The extensive data concerning 2009 formed the base for the project and made it possible to study the selected products thoroughly for this year. However, the intention was also to assess other versions of the product system – Cluster West in 1997 and also a possible, improved future case. For this purpose, a conceptual LCA method was developed that made it possible to consider different products as well as different conditions for the product system. Having conducted the baseline LCA, important results could be generated based on knowledge about six key performance indicators (KPIs) regarding overall information about materials, the fuel mix and the electricity mix. The conceptual LCA method could be used for other products and versions of Cluster West, without collecting large amounts of additional specific Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data. The developed conceptual LCA method really simplified the rather complex Cluster West production system. Instead of having to consider hundreds of parameters, the information about the six KPIs was sufficient to estimate the emissions from different products produced in different versions of the production system (Cluster West). The results showed that the clinker produced at Cluster West is competitive from a climate perspective, causing CO2-eq missions that are a couple of percent lower than the world average. During the twelve year period from 1997 to 2009 these emissions became about 12 percent lower, which was mainly achieved by production efficiency measures but also via changing fuels. However, the most interesting results concern the blended cement products. It was manifested that it is very advantageous from a climate perspective to substitute clinker with granulated blast furnace slag, mainly since it reduces the emissions accounted related to calcination. For example, the CO2-eq emissions related to CEM III/B product were estimated to be 65 percent lower than those for CEM I. A framework for identifying and evaluating options for improvement has been developed and applied. Based on that framework the present production system was analyzed and illustrated, and different measures for reducing the climate impact were shown and evaluated. Two possible scenarios were defined and the conceptual LCA model used to estimate their climate performance. The authors’ recommendation is for CEMEX to continue to increase the share of CEM III (the share of good clinker substitutes), and to make efforts to shift the focus on the market from clinker and cement plants to different types of cement (or concrete) or even better to focus on the lifecycle of the final products such as buildings and constructions. Information and measures at the plant level are not sufficient to compare products or to significantly reduce the climate impact related to cement. To achieve important reductions of the emissions, measures and knowledge at a higher industrial symbiosis level are needed.

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