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In my dissertation, I described two label-free optical biosensors based on integrated optical (IO) structures for the sensitive, rapid detection of pathogens - bacterial cells, viral proteins - from fluid samples, which can serve as a basis for rapid clinical tests. These types of devices provide a specific, cost-effective, user-friendly and portable way of detection with sufficient sensitivity by changing the optical signal. Thus, in practice, they could potentially be used as point-of-care (POC) or home rapid diagnostic tests, offering a promising alternative to traditional laboratory assays. Their realization is supported by their integration with microfluidic channels in a lab-on-a-chip (LOC) device, for handling small volumes of fluid. Based on these aspects, biosensors were designed as waveguides, integrated in a microfluidic channel on a glass substrate, performing evanescent-field sensing. The detection method is based on the fact that the light, propagating in the waveguide with total internal reflections, penetrates into the surrounding media at a limited extent, which is called the evanescent field. Material can enter this space and become bound to the surface, which can change the phase of the light, propagating in the structure, or even scatter it into the surrounding medium. These phenomena offer the possibility of specific detection of pathogens, adhering to the surface, pre-coated with a biological recognition element, such as an antibody. As a first application, an electro-optical biosensor was developed with an evanescent field-based detection concept, aiming at label-free, rapid, selective and sensitive detection of bacteria from body fluids. The usability of the measurement principle, based on the processing of light-scattering patterns, caused by evanescent waves, scattered on target cells, was demonstrated by quantitative detection of Escherichia coli bacterial cells from their suspensions. One of the keys to the applicability of biosensors is their sensitivity. To increase it in case of this device, I applied the phenomenon of dielectrophoresis using the polarizability of the target cells. It provides the possibility to selectively collect cells on the surface of electrodes placed close to the waveguide and then detect them based on the evanescent field. To test this, I wanted to sense bacteria in an artificial urine sample containing somatic cells, in this case endothelial cells, mimicking urine in an inflammatory state. By optimizing the parameters of the measurements, a rapid, sensitive bacterial detection of about 10 minutes was achieved. The detection limit of the biosensor was comparable to the characteristic pathogen concentration in body fluids. Furthermore, selective bacterial detection was also achieved from a fluid sample containing somatic cells, mimicking inflammatory urine. In my dissertation, a second application is also presented, in this case a miniature IO Mach-Zehnder interferometer-based biosensor was developed for the specific quantitative detection of viral proteins. Thanks to the interferometric measurement principle, a fast and accurate detection of target proteins can be achieved. With this device, the aim was to investigate the potential neuroinvasion of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection, from which point of view the pathological effects of viral surface spike proteins on the blood-brain barrier are of great importance in the case of severe symptoms. Furthermore, infection may also cause adverse effects in the intestinal tract. Thus, the specific aim of this application was to evaluate the ability of the S1 subunit of the coronavirus surface spike protein to cross the human in vitro blood-brain barrier and intestinal epithelial biological barrier system models using the biosensor. Experiments were designed to use the sensor for specific, quantitative detection of spike proteins, that may have been passed through permeability assays on biological barrier models prepared by our collaborators. To reach the specific sensing of the target protein, the waveguide surface of the interferometer’s measuring arm was functionalized with specific S1 protein antibody. To achieve optimal, stable measurement conditions, the operating point of the interferometer was adjusted thermo-optically. The results of the experiments with the biosensor were in agreement with the ones of the conventional immunological tests (ELISA) carried out in parallel. It was possible to determine that S1 protein could pass through the two types of barriers in different amounts. The findings of the experiments with the integrated optical Mach-Zehnder interferometer biosensor demonstrate that this detection approach can be used for similar medical diagnostic purposes, and thus can contribute to the investigation of the adverse effects of SARS-CoV-2 on the human body.

How do the main elements and actors shaping women’s rights at the macro, mezzo and micro levels relate to each other during different periods of crisis, in different circumstances, and how does the traditional division of gender roles influence decision-makers in approaching the question of gender equality? Would a greater inclusion of women in decision-making reinforce democracy building and overwrite the division of gender roles? To answer the research questions a qualitative case-study research design was applied to compare the evolution of women’s rights in Morocco and Tunisia from independence until the present day with a special focus on the post-Arab Spring period and the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Incorporating both inductive and deductive methods and examining the link between a cause or a set of causes and the outcome, process tracing was chosen as the qualitative analysis methodology. In addition to the survey and the evaluation of primary and secondary sources, the dissertation collected data from twenty interviews conducted with women’s rights activists and representatives of different NGOs from Morocco and Tunisia, while also setting up the researcher’s own datasets from the empirical analysis. The new results of the dissertation can be summarised as follows: • Building on a novel methodology the dissertation applies a complex framework that takes into consideration actors, elements and their interactions at the macro (international conventions), mezzo (decision-makers, states) and micro (non-state actors) levels. The conduct of interviews enriched the quality of the research, especially in the context of the pandemic which urged the researcher to apply alternative methods and reach representatives and activists online. In addition, based on previously unseen data interviews helped the researcher to arrive at new results. • Based on the analysis of the functioning of the government and the interviews, the dissertation proves that the absence of responsibility from the leadership leads to general disappointment among local people towards decision-makers. This anarchical situation reinforces the recognition of women’s rights NGOs that in some regions quasi fill the position of the government. • The Arab Spring and the pandemic established a quite favourable environment for civil society to play a more active role and exert pressure on decision-makers. However, the socioeconomic conditions (political turmoil in Tunisia, foreign indebtedness, the increase in the unemployment rate) overwrote initial expectations and did not allow the actors to fully exploit the new opportunities. • The Arab Spring brought about the re-emergence of Islamists, the consequences of which were most apparent from the point of women’s rights in Tunisia where school dropouts significantly increased. • The interviews proved that the evolution of women’s rights in Morocco and Tunisia does not exclusively depend on traditions and cultural norms but on the level of education. Statistical indicators also proved this result which explains why Tunisia has always been ahead of Morocco in terms of the development of women’s rights. • Contrary to the general perception, the interviews proved that the solidarity among women’s rights NGOs is more apparent in the marginalized regions of Morocco and Tunisia.

The purpose of the thesis is to analyze how the automotive manufacturing companies being active in Hungary operate in global value chains, with a particular focus on suppliers. Although the topic of GVC is widespread and discussed in international literature, there is a gap in relation to the Hungarian automotive manufacturing industry, especially in the current situation when the COVID-19 pandemic affects the operation of the multinational enterprises. The main identified research question is the following: What is the value creation of the automotive manufacturing industry in Hungary within global value chain? The research process started with a comprehensive literature review and theoretical background analysis about the GVC concept (including the introduction of ‘Smile-curve’) and FDI investment in Central and Eastern Europe (including the characterization of near-shoring activities) and continued with conducting a sample survey and semi-structured interviews with the key car parts suppliers. Executive board, managerial level and engineers were the target persons both for the survey and for interviews. Based on the literature review, I formulated two hypotheses: 1. The theory of ‘Smile curve’ is also valid in case of the Hungarian automotive manufacturing industry, typically low value-added production processes take place in the country. 2. In addition to the central location, the cheap and skilled Hungarian labour was the most important factor in the near-shoring activities of multinational companies expanding to Hungary. In order to be able to accept or reject the first hypothesis about the relevance of the so called ‘Smile curve’ in the Hungarian automotive manufacturing industry, to define position of the automotive manufacturer companies being active in Hungary in the global automotive manufacturing value chain and to create an in-depth understanding about investment incentives of the Western European firms in the country, I prepared an online survey. To test my second hypothesis about the reasons of near-shoring activity in Hungary, I conducted 3 interviews with industry experts from TIER 1 companies of different size. The targeted automotive parts manufacturers are all suppliers of the 5 OEMs present in Hungary (Audi, BMW, Mercedes, Opel and Suzuki) among others. The new results of the doctoral dissertation are the following: I can reject the first hypothesis about the relevance of ‘Smile curve’ in the Hungarian automotive manufacturing industry, because beside manufacturing activities with low added value typically, also research and development activities take place at bigger multinational companies with higher added value. I can accept the second hypothesis about near-shoring in Hungary, because beside the ‘proximity to export markets’, the cheap but skilled labour was decisive when multinationals decided to invest in the country. The ‘positive support system’, ‘favourable tax conditions’, ‘government policy’ and ‘proximity to HQ’ were aspects that companies used, but they are rather neutral factors. The ‘good infrastructure’ is not so good in the real life and the ‘cheap raw material’ is not cheap, because firms have to deal with world market prices, thus, these were not attractive to investors. Further results about the business operations of the analyzed supplier companies: The purchasing decisions for the Hungarian production happens locally decisively, either independently or with involving the headquarter. The manufactured products are typically drive chains, body parts and electric sensors and the proportion of products designated by OEMs is rather high. Western Europe is the biggest export market of the companies analysed, followed by China, North-America and the Central Eastern European region. Relocation processes are not characteristic of the firms. If so, only from other country to Hungary and it is also determined by OEMs providing new opportunities for them. In some cases, wage costs and logistics also play a role in the relocation process. Electromobility and autonomous driving are the most affecting trends in the automotive manufacturing industry. The semiconductor shortage as a serious downside risk is also the result of the pandemic. The effects of COVID-19 are becoming less pronounced today, but the semiconductor crisis is continuing. Favourable tax conditions and higher value added are the success criteria that will help the Hungarian automotive manufacturing industry to remain competitive in the future. Professional trainings, more support for SMEs and favourable legal conditions are also important aspects. Today, the CEE region, including Hungary is a net exporter of knowledge-intensive goods. To improve its global competitiveness and to be able to move into higher-value-added goods and services, the region should invest more in R&D, infrastructure, education and collaboration between companies and universities. The key players in the automotive part manufacturing has realized that value added is a very important factor in the success of an industry and it can be increased due to investment in research and development and innovation. As revealed by the research, they have already established R&D centers and joint projects with universities (e.g. departments), so companies are well on their way to producing higher added value.

In our research, we aim to shed light on the role of overdue debt in reinforcing poverty. This not only helps to better understand the dynamics of poverty trap induced by overdue debt but also enhances the rediscussing of current policy tools. Our research is based on data collected with targeted questionnaires in March and April 2019 by the Soreco Research Kft. Data were recorded with a personal question and answer method, by a so-called multi-stage stratified random sampling procedure. The data collection was anonymised and focused on the financial and liquidity decisions of households in small settlements in one of the most disadvantaged counties of Hungary, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén (BAZ) county. The sample is representative on the level of households living in small settlements. After cleaning the raw data, we have information from 504 households and 1794 individuals. 1196 individuals are of legal age, from whom 179 had overdue debt. We develop a theoretical model inspired by Akerlof (1978), Tirole (2006), and Mukherjee, Subramanian, Tantri (2019) to derive a feasibility condition for market-based debt relief programs. Our empirical analysis aims at investigating the role of overdue debt in creating poverty trap. With the help of statistical analysis and linear probability models we examine the impact of overdue debt on employment, on having a bank account, and on mental- and physical- health based on targeted questionnaires and in-depth interviews in the most disadvantaged regions of Hungary. We controlled for socioeconomic factors (e.g., gender, age, education level, ability to pay) and for settlement and county development indicators. In these regions, a significant part of the society has been the victim of financial exclusion well before the Covid 19 crisis, even under prospering economic conditions. Results: § The theoretical model shows that lenders have no interest to offer payment reductions if non-performing borrowers are few, have small debts, and are difficult to reach. In this situation, poor debtors serve better as deterrents, similarly if we put them into a pillory. § Calibrating model parameters to poor households struggling with overdue debts, we show that this might be the case on our sample, too. § As, in normal economic circumstances, private debt relief programs are typically not feasible, a state subsidy would be needed to consolidate the debts of the poor. State intervention can be justified both by positive externalities and moral considerations. § We find that many borrowers hide from debt collection as a consequence of overdue debt that has escalated to an unbearable level due to penalty rates. These borrowers are following the hiding strategy and take their decisions accordingly: to avoid deductions, they do not apply for registered jobs, do not open bank accounts and consequently, they are forced to live under constant stress. § To sum up the impact of overdue debt on social inclusion factors and according to our estimations, overdue debts reduce the likelihood of having a registered job by nearly 14 percentage points. Not having a registered job reduces the probability of owning a bank account by 22 percentage points and, in addition, overdue debts further decrease the probability by 5 percentage points. In addition, overdue debt also has a negative effect on the health of those living in the same household as the debtor, and this negative effect is greater than what a combined high school diploma and diploma could compensate for (0.4 versus 1.08-0.72 = 0.36). § Overdue debt, therefore, leads to a certain type of debt-trap mechanism resulting in significant loss for both the individual and the society. In this light, policy makers should pay more attention to addressing credit cycles and resolving non-performing debt obligations, especially in this fragile part of the society.

This research project investigated the perceptions of learner autonomy (LA) in the context of EFL tertiary education in Vietnam as well as the factors that may influence the development of LA among non-English-major students. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data. A total of 1,565 students completed the survey questionnaires and 13 of whom participated in the interviews. Two types of data were collected at the same time before the mixed data analysis with the support of SPSS version 24.0, SmartPLS3, and SPSS AMOS for quantitative data and ATLAS.ti for qualitative data. The findings from two strands were compared, contrasted, and mixed to elucidate the research questions. The conceptualization of LA is consistently both theoretically from the literature and empirically. LA defined in this study consisted of four related facets including beliefs about teacher’s role, motivation and desire to learn English, metacognition in language learning, and freedom. In general, the participating students described proactive autonmoy and showed the positivity to LA; however, as they perceived, they appeared to lack LA in several ways. The students demonstrated high levels of motivation and desire to learn English and sound metacognitive knowledge about the self and the learning context. Still, they believed that the teachers were really of importance to their learning process and they held high expectations for their teachers. Besides, there was a lack of metacognitive skills (i.e., planning, monitoring, and evaluating) and metacognive knowledge about language matters and learning process. Moreover, communicating with the teachers with regard to learning issuse was not undertaken as it should be. The out-of-class activities were not frequently engaged in, except for two entertaining activities. Their exercise of LA, from their persepctive, was affected by two types of factors, namely internal (e.g., desire, motivation, metacognition, and language proficiency) and external (e.g., teacher’s activities, social environment, curriculum, and peers). The former was believed to exert a greater influence on LA than the latter. On the basis of the students’ understandings of LA and the LA-influencing factors, the study offered fundamental implications about how to cultivate the students’ LA, which is considered an important capacity to promote in tertiary education, both inside and outside classrooms, as one way to nurture lifelong learning (Dam, 2012; Yurdakul, 2017). Therefore, the involvement of many different stakeholders in the educational system is really necessary. The research brought about insights into LA and the factors that influence LA, as perceived by non-English-major students in Vietnam. Besides, the study contributed to the literature on LA and language learning in an Asian context from the learners’ perspective. Furthermore, the findings practically informed the relevant stakeholders such as lecturers, educators, curriculum planners, and policy makers through implications to foster LA especially in the hard times of COVID 19 pandemic.

Abstract Bioethics has expanded considerably over the last few decades in the academic enterprise and policy arena. However, despite the progress, the history of bioethics exhibits methodological controversies among contributors in the field. Generally, the contention is related to bioethics' complex and contested relationship with philosophical theory, contributors' perspectivism, and a "reliance upon high-flying ethical theory," as well as "skepticism of the applied nature of bioethics," which further point to differences in interpretation of the logic and epistemology of morality and moral judgments. On the other hand, it is claimed that pragmatic ethics, mainly on the grounds of incorporating the components of different understandings of ethics, its interdisciplinarity, and its practical focus, avoid the controversies over the methods and goals of bioethics through a consideration of the context in ethical inquiry and serves as a method. In this dissertation, I focus on investigating the methodological dimensions of bioethics while emphasizing topical issues in the field, including gestational surrogacy, healthcare allocation, rationing, and organ trade and trafficking in Africa. On the whole, I look at the methodology and goals of bioethics mainly, from the point of view of pragmatist ethics, following the line of John Dewey's ethics. I also investigate specific moral problems in bioethics to further illuminate the methods of pragmatic bioethics and show the practical usefulness for solving specific moral dilemmas arising in a particular context. The dissertation is devided into seven chapters. In Chapter One, I discuss the background of the study and locate the problems of the study by showing the contested nature of the methodological terrain of bioethics. Further, I discus the disagreements about the logic and epistemology of morality, moral judgment and decision making, the nature of moral issues, and the practical goals of bioethics. Finally, I also look at how pragmatist bioethics avoids methodological disagreements in bioethics. In Chapter Two, I examine the methodological dimensions of bioethics and show how a pragmatist approach and consideration of context are relevant in bioethical investigations. I also provide an overview of the recently introduced context-sensitive methodologies, theories, and principles of bioethics in the global South and East and show the relevance of context-based bioethical research and bioethical deliberations. Finally, discusing the epistemic ground of morality and the nature of bioethics, I argue that a pragmatist-empirical turn in bioethics can help us think about and make decisions about specific bioethical dilemmas. In Chapter Three, I further discuss the meta-method of bioethics by examining Dewey's inquiry ethics and the case of gestational surrogacy. First, I mainly revisited Dewey's ethical inquiry method and pragmatist bioethics and then identified steps of pragmatist bioethical inquiry. Using these steps, I discuss the moral dilemma of gestational surrogacy at the level of a public issue that needs social policy and suggest pragmatic ways to come up with solutions. In the last part of this chapter, I undeline the significance of Dewey's emphasis on education, deliberative democracy, and institutions as the basis for solving bioethical issues arising in different societal contexts. Next, in Chapter Four, I examine the ethical dilemma of healthcare allocation and rationing from a pragmatist ethics perspective, again mainly following Dewey's work. The moral dilemma of distribution always entails rationing: denying service to someone to benefit others. Such aspects of allocation and rationing and the normative-relational aspect of disease and health render the problem morally controversial. It is not easy to reach on agreed upon principles of healthcare resource allocation and rationing applicable across different contexts. Hence, in this chapter, I argue that the moral challenges of healthcare rationing ought not to be addressed through an appeal to principles but rather through deliberation that embraces a more pragmatic and democratic approach to thinking with sensitivity to context. However, this does not mean that moral principles and values are unnecessary when allocating healthcare resources. In Chapter Five, I further illuminate the methods of pragmatist bioethics and moral challeges of healthcare allocation and rationing by using the context of African healthcare systems and the COVID-19 pandemic. In the first part of this chapter, I critically review the African healthcare crisis's factors and suggest pragmatist means to address justice issues in healthcare allocation in the region. In the second part, I present the worldwide and Sub-Saharan African situations during the COVID-19 pandemic and examine the place of moral principles in the allocation and rationing of healthcare resources. In this chapter, I mainly argue for the relevance of go

Autophagy is an intracellular catabolic process that controls infections both directly and indirectly via its multifaceted effects on the innate and adaptive immune responses. It has been reported that LPS stimulates this cellular process, whereas the effect of IL-36α on autophagy remains largely unknown. We, therefore, investigated how IL-36α modulates the endogenous and LPS-induced autophagy in THP-1 cells. The levels of LC3B-II and autophagic flux were determined by western blotting. The intracellular localization of LC3B was measured by immunofluorescence assay. The activation levels of signaling pathways implicated in autophagy regulation were evaluated by using a phosphokinase array. Our results showed that combined IL-36α and LPS treatment cooperatively increased the levels of LC3B-II and Beclin-1, stimulated the autophagic flux, facilitated intracellular redistribution of LC3B, and increased the average number of autophagosomes per cell. The IL36α/LPS combined treatment increased phosphorylation of STAT5a/b, had minimal effect on the Akt/PRAS40/mTOR pathway, and reduced the levels of phospho-Yes, phospho-FAK, and phospho-WNK1. Thus, this cytokine/PAMP combination triggers pro-autophagic biased signaling by several mechanisms and thus cooperatively stimulates the autophagic cascade. An increased autophagic activity of innate immune cells simultaneously exposed to IL-36α and LPS may play an important role in the pathogenesis of Gram-negative bacterial infections. SARS-CoV-2 can infect and replicate in esophageal cells and enterocytes, leading to direct damage to the intestinal epithelium. The infection decreases the level of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptors, thereby altering the composition of the gut microbiota. SARS-CoV-2 elicits a cytokine storm, which contributes to gastrointestinal inflammation. The direct cytopathic effects of SARS-CoV-2, gut dysbiosis, and aberrant immune response result in increased intestinal permeability, which may exacerbate existing symptoms and worsen the prognosis. By exploring the elements of pathogenesis, several therapeutic options have emerged for the treatment of COVID-19 patients, such as biologics and biotherapeutic agents. However, the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in the feces may facilitate the spread of COVID-19 through fecal-oral transmission and contaminate the environment. Thus, gastrointestinal SARS-CoV-2 infection has important epidemiological significance. The development of new therapeutic and preventive options is necessary to treat and restrict the spread of this severe and widespread infection more effectively.