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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Despeines, Yadhiera;
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    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
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    Authors: Mendoza, Paulene;
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    Authors: Bellavance, Marie-Andrée; Gallais, Sophie;

    Mental health and wellbeing are the critical basis by which humans can flourish, fulfil their potential, and remain resilient in the face of stress and adversity. However, mental disorders are one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. In Arctic and Subarctic regions, these challenges are particularly pressing because of the rapid social and cultural changes and their impacts on the wellbeing of Indigenous populations. Improving our capacity for diagnosis and treatment in multiple populations is crucial and involves providing new understanding of biological roots and sex-based differences of mental health problems, new early-detection methods, and new environmental and biological mechanisms that can be targeted for intervention. Moreover, sociocultural and environmental factors influence mental health and need to be considered as determinants of health. Within this holistic understanding of mental wellness, access to housing plays a major role. Indeed, not only do northern communities lack housing stock, but what is available may be of lower quality. This chapter gathers a selection of Sentinel North research results from a broad range of disciplines that contribute to understand the effects of stress on mental health and the mechanisms underlying the resilience to stress, to develop new tools for a better understanding of the brain and an early diagnosis of mental disorders, and to encourage an ecosystem approach for mental health and prevent health issues through culturally adapted actions on determinants of health, like access to sustainable and culturally appropriate housing.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Gao, Zhiyuan;

    Mercury is a contaminant of global concern. It is present widely in global ecosystems and its methylated species is a known developmental neurotoxin to humans. The fate and behaviour of mercury in the environment are largely affected by its speciation, especially among different oxidation states controlled by redox chemistry. Mercury redox chemistry is the key chemical mechanism mediating the transport of the contaminant, yet it has not been well represented in global and regional mercury transport models. Most models rely heavily on computational data to parameterize mercury redox chemistry, and large discrepancies have been reported between the model parameters and experimental results. In this thesis, several critically important mercury redox processes in the atmosphere and marine cryosphere are investigated experimentally in laboratory, mesocosm and field studies. In the atmosphere, in-cloud mercury photoreduction is found to occur at rates that are much slower than those currently used in models, questioning the presumed dominance of the aqueous-phase reduction in the atmosphere. Mercury redox reactions are also studied in an outdoor sea ice mesocosm. At the atmosphere-sea ice interface, saline surfaces of experimental sea ice are shown to support heterogenous photochemical reactions causing the depletion of gaseous elemental mercury in the atmospheric boundary layer; whereas at the sea ice-seawater interface, cryo-photochemical processes could cause the decrease in the concentrations of dissolved gaseous mercury during the formation of sea ice. Overall, the results from this thesis research provide new and important concepts and experimental datasets to the mercury redox mechanism during its geochemical cycle. The results will advance model parametrizations on mercury redox chemistry and improve future projections of mercury cycling in the atmosphere and the Arctic marine cryosphere, which are especially important under a rapidly changing environment. Furthermore, the results also validate the mesocosm approach on studying cryo-photochemical processes in the sea ice environment, which opens up a new platform to study the geochemistry of other contaminants in the marine cryosphere.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Higa, Justin T;

    Fracturing is a fundamental mechanical weathering process that affects geology from global tectonics to local outcrops. Despite vast differences in size, fractures are formed through similar mechanisms and have interdependent relationships, where small fractures can contribute to the formation of larger ones and vice versa. Chapter 1 of this dissertation introduces the study of fractures and their wide-ranging effects on plate tectonics and landscape weathering. The subsequent chapters describe three research projects focused on the impacts of fractures on tectonic and geomorphological processes at two locations on the west coast of North America. These studies utilize a diverse array of methods from various fields, including geomorphology, structural geology, geochronology, hydrology, and geophysics. Together, this dissertation summarizes how fractures influence Earth’s history in fault systems, weathered profiles, and landslides.Chapter 2 describes how faults on microcontinents record the dynamic evolution of plate boundaries. However, most microcontinents are submarine and difficult to study. Here, I show that the southern part of the Isla �ngel de la Guarda (IAG) microcontinent, in the northern Gulf of California rift, is densely faulted by a late Quaternary-active normal fault zone. To characterize the onshore kinematics of this Almeja fault zone, I integrate remote fault mapping using high-resolution satellite- and drone-based topography with neotectonic field mapping. I then analyzed 13 luminescence ages from sediment deposits offset or impounded by faults to constrain the timing of fault offsets. I found that north-striking normal faults in the Almeja fault zone continue offshore to the south and likely into the nascent North Salsipuedes basin southwest of IAG. Late Pleistocene and Holocene luminescence ages indicate that the most recent onshore fault activity occurred in the last ∼50 kyr. These observations suggest that the North Salsipuedes basin is kinematically linked with and continues onshore as the active Almeja fault zone. I suggest that fragmentation of the evolving IAG microcontinent may not yet be complete and that the Pacific-North America plate boundary is either not fully localized onto the Ballenas transform fault and Lower Delfin pull-apart basin or is in the initial stage of a plate boundary reorganization.In Chapter 3, I explain how diverse mechanical and chemical processes contribute to the breakdown of fresh bedrock and generate the geologic critical zone (CZ) consisting of soil, saprolite, and weathered bedrock. The deep CZ can extend from 1 – 100’s m below ground. However, the spatial and depth distribution of weathered bedrock is difficult to determine from Earth's surface. In this study, I investigate the deep CZ structures at a well-studied, steep, and forested site near Coos Bay, Oregon, USA, using a combination of geophysical methods and process-based modeling. P-wave seismic refraction surveys show a sharp velocity transition at a surface-parallel, ~5 m-deep, and relatively slow velocity contour of 1220 m/s. I also show another transition near contours of 2200 m/s with spatially varying and undulating patterns. These boundaries may represent pervasively oxidized bedrock and fractured bedrock layers observed in a nearby, deep borehole. Then, comparison with Schmidt hammer and ground penetrating radar data reveal areas of highly weathered, porous, and heterogeneous soil and saprolite. I compare these datasets with two process-based models that predict weathered bedrock structures: one based on bedrock drainage of reactive water and the other on topographic stress-induced fracturing. Although these models can reproduce some first-order similarities in my surveys, the mismatch between simulated and inferred weathering may suggest other factors, such as pre-existing fractures, lithological heterogeneity, or landscape evolution, may contribute to variations in the deep CZ. Together, this study underscores the importance of site-specific field observations to evaluate bedrock weathering processes in natural landscapes.Then, Chapter 4 investigates CZ controls on the occurrence of shallow soil landslides at the study site of Chapter 3, where mechanical and chemical processes may have generated weathered bedrock with increased porosities and hydraulic conductivities underneath soil. Field studies suggest that exfiltrating groundwater from weathered bedrock may be an important driver of initiating shallow landslides. However, variations of deep CZ structure are typically not considered in slope stability models due to a lack of information about the subsurface. Here, I conduct numerical experiments coupling process-based models of 1) deep critical zone development, 2) three-dimensional transient hydrology, and 3) multidimensional slope stability. I show that spatial variations of weathered bedrock thickness control the location of infiltrating and exfiltrating groundwater seepage, induce pore pressure variations at the soil-bedrock boundary, and impact shallow landslide occurrence, size, and location. This work suggests that characterizing the deep CZ is critical for effectively simulating groundwater seepage and assessing the likelihood, magnitude, and timing of shallow landslides.

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    Authors: Pu, Judy Pin;

    Cryogenian Snowball Earth glaciations are some of the most extreme changes in Earth’s climate through its history. Decades of work have established the global ubiquity of Snowball Earth sedimentary deposits and their synchroneity in time, yet key questions remain concerning the potential causes for global glaciations and their drastically different durations and expressions in the rock record. This dissertation addresses these questions and proposes explanations for the onset of global glaciation and how the abrupt termination of a Snowball event could explain the differences in chemical sediments seen between the two Cryogenian Snowball events. In Chapter 1, I evaluate the emplacement of a large igneous province as a potential trigger for the Sturtian Snowball Earth (717-661 Ma). This work was done in collaboration with Francis A. Macdonald, Mark D. Schmitz, Robert H. Rainbird, Wouter Bleeker, Barra A. Peak, Rebecca M. Flowers, Paul F. Hoffman, Matthew Rioux, and Michael A. Hamilton. Previous geochronology has suggested a rough coincidence of glacial onset with one of the largest magmatic episodes in the geological record, the Franklin large igneous province. I show that chemical abrasion-isotope dilution-thermal ionization mass spectrometry (CA-ID-TIMS) U-Pb geochronology on zircon and baddeleyite from sills associated with the paleo-equatorial Franklin large igneous province in Arctic Canada record rapid emplacement between 719.86 ± 0.21 and 718.61 ± 0.30 Ma ago, 0.9 to 1.6 Ma before the onset of widespread glaciation. Geologic observations and (U-Th)/He dates on Franklin sills are compatible with major post–Franklin exhumation, possibly due to development of mafic volcanic highlands on windward equatorial Laurentia and increased global weatherability. After a transient magmatic CO2 flux, long-term carbon sequestration associated with increased weatherability could have nudged Earth over the threshold for runaway ice-albedo feedback.In Chapter 2, I address whether there is evidence for glaciations in the 50 Myr prior to the Sturtian glaciation by examining the proposed ca. 750 Ma Kaigas glaciation. I evaluate this hypothesis at the eponymous location with detailed stratigraphy and geochronology through the Kaigas, Rosh Pinah, and Numees formations on the western margin of the Kalahari craton in southern Namibia. This work was done in collaboration with Francis A. Macdonald, Emily F. Smith, Jahandar Ramezani, and Nicholas Swanson-Hysell. We find that glacial deposits previously assigned to the Kaigas Formation are instead ca. 717-661 Ma diamictites of the Sturtian Numees Formation. Pre-Numees strata, including the Kaigas Formation, host facies associations diagnostic of fan delta deposition along an active normal fault. Interbedded volcanic rocks in the Rosh Pinah Formation overlying the Kaigas Formation were dated with U-Pb CA-ID-TIMS on zircon at ca. 752 Ma. These Tonian deposits are interpreted as being deposited in an active rift basin without evidence for glaciation. Rosh Pinah magmatism could be correlative with the Mount Rogers Complex in Virginia, USA, consistent with a scenario of the Kalahari craton actively rifting from Laurentia and associated terranes within 20º of the equator at the time. We conclude that, at least in marine settings, evidence for low-latitude glaciation is limited to the 717-635 Ma Cryogenian Period. In Chapter 3, I propose an explanation for why the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations differ. This work was done in collaboration with Mark D. Schmitz and Francis A. Macdonald. I present new geological mapping, measured stratigraphic sections, and U-Pb zircon geochronology and geochemistry on Cryogenian successions exposed in the Naukluft Nappes of Namibia. Stratigraphic sections measured in the context of geological mapping document glacial deposition on a slope setting below the ice grounding line. Deglaciation is marked by an abrupt coarsening, boulder-sized dropstones, and the appearance of volcaniclastic deposits. Large lithic fragments within the volcaniclastics and detrital zircon provenance using laser ablation split stream mass spectrometry suggest a local source. CA-ID-TIMS on these units yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U date of 635.84 ± 0.22/0.29/0.71 Ma, which is interpreted as a depositional age. We suggest that glacio-isostatic unloading reactivated the formerly rifted passive margin. This age overlaps with dates near the top of Marinoan glacial deposits on the Swakop terrane, Australia, and South China. We suggest that all of these dates record deglaciation and that deglacial volcanism associated with isostatic unloading provided a positive feedback for both albedo and CO2 that shortened the Marinoan glaciation.

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    Authors: Isied, Margaret;

    Humans are a product of their environment – the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, are all in one way or another our “environment”, which in turn, impacts our health. Air pollution has been a long-standing issue, from the time humans innovated cooking over fire stoves, to our present-day reliance on transportation, technology, and industry. Exposure to air pollution has been linked to premature deaths, respiratory diseases, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and bronchitis, total body inflammation, and cancer. We are exposed to environmental contaminants everywhere and every day. For example, pesticides are used for farming practices to increase crop yield. With the advancements in commercial farming, any number of highly toxic, highly volatile pesticides are ubiquitously used within the same area. Many communities living near major sources of air pollution, such as freeways, industrial sites, and agricultural areas, have been demonstrated to be disproportionately burdened by these environmental contaminants. While environmental conditions have improved drastically since the 1970s, there is high variability of what communities are experiencing at the local level. Recently, there has been a rise in environmental concerns locally; communities are concerned that current environmental monitoring and assessment methods are flawed in two ways. First, these methods are focused on regional impacts not capturing local environmental conditions within smaller communities. Since the 1970s, environmental agencies have evaluated environmental contaminant levels using monitoring and modeling techniques that demonstrate how pollutant concentrations are impacting a region. Many of these methods were developed to demonstrate compliance with state and federal standards. For example, monitoring equipment is strategically placed to understand the impacts of air quality on a region, rather than a local community, and air dispersion modeling has typically been reserved for large industrial operations that are likely to exceed regional air quality standards. Second, these methods do not consider exposure to multiple environmental contaminants which, coupled with social burdens such as low income and limited access to resources, make communities more susceptible to health impacts, ultimately diminishing their quality of life. Single pollutant evaluations are not representative of real-world exposure scenarios. These concerns highlight a needed call to action to better understand and evaluate environmental pollutants. New or repurposed methods and tools would ultimately provide regulators data at a more granular scale to make decisions in the interest of specific communities, rather than over an entire region. A better understanding of pollution variation in a community would also help regulators know where to focus intervention efforts. My dissertation explores tools and methods with the goal to: (1) recommend how to use new low-cost sensor monitoring technology to successfully understand localized air quality impacts, (2) present a case study using localized air pollution data to better quantify community exposures to air pollution, and (3) explore how air dispersion modeling can be used to evaluate exposure to multiple pesticides at the local level. Results from this dissertation developed new methods for setting up low-cost air quality sensor networks, emphasize variable air pollution concentrations within communities, and demonstrated the feasibility of repurposing modeling tools to evaluate pesticide use. This research is critical to reinforcing the importance of implementing new methods and technologies to understand localized impacts and provide data to regulatory bodies who are responsible for emission control, land use decision making, and public health intervention.

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    Authors: Schoenfeld, Ashley Marie;

    Icy satellites of the outer solar system have become the primary target for planetary exploration because of their relevance to understanding of solar-system evolution and to the origin of life. Despite this importance, it remains unclear how different combinations of tectonic deformation, climate conditions, and surficial and interior processes have shaped geologically diverse paths of satellite evolution, as evident from their widely different surface morphologies. Here I address this fundamental question by conducting geological mapping of Enceladus and Titan, the two end-member icy satellites of Saturn; Enceladus has tectonic activity expressed by erupting plumes along active faults while Titan has a thick atmosphere that exerts strong control on its surface processes and hence surface morphologies. My studies on Enceladus focus on two subjects: (1) the transport time scale for nanoparticles of silica from the ocean floor to the erupting plumes and (2) the role of the non-tidal stress in controlling the phase lag of time-varying plume fluxes that share the same periodicity with the diurnal tide. I assess the transport time scale of silica particles based on experimentally determined scaling relationships for convection systems under rotation and entrainment of particles in thermally-driven convecting fluids. The physics-based analytical relationships obtained from this approach allow the establishment of the size of the silica particles to the thermal regime of the core, which in turn provides the basis for estimating the transport time scale of the particle through the ocean, which I find to be on the order of months. To assess the role of the non-tidal stress in controlling the phase lag of plume eruption on Enceladus, I conducted detailed structural mapping along geyser-hosting faults zones (i.e., the informally named tiger stripes in the literature). My mapping shows that the geysers are preferentially located at local extensional structures along overall strike-slip faults. In order to have simultaneous strike-slip fault motion and local development of extensional structures along the strike-slip faults, coeval shear and tensile failure is required. Imposing this condition and assuming that the peak-eruption time is the result of the superposed tidal and non-tidal stresses reaching the maximum tensile-stress value, I am able to use a stress-decomposition model to determine the static non-tidal stress field along geyser-hosting faults. The required non-title stress field is best explained by lateral viscous flow induced by the gradient of gravitational potential stored in an unevenly thick ice shell. My research on Titan focuses on the geomorphological response in space and time to climate change and tectonic deformation. In this end, I established the spatial distribution and temporal relationships among morphologically distinctive terrains through mapping in the South Belet and Soi Crater regions. The major finding of the work is that dunes and lakes are the youngest geomorphologic units resulting from the youngest climate condition that are superposed on top of hummocky, labyrinth, pitted, and mountainous terrains. The presence of dune fields requires aeolian transport, the lake and labyrinth terrains surface and subsurface fluid-flow activities, and the pitted terrain removal of volatile materials. The oldest mountainous terrain is best explained by early tectonic deformation. The spatial distribution of dunes and lakes is consistent with the global mapping results that climate-sensitive terrains are distributed symmetrically with respect to the equator, reflecting the symmetry of the atmosphere circulation.

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    Authors: Yoo, Kyongwon;

    As car manufacturers have reduced vehicle tailpipe emissions, roadway sources of PM2.5 (particulate matter with diameters ≤ 2.5 μm) generated by brake wear, tire wear, and resuspended dust from the roadway have played an increasingly significant role in near-roadway exposure. In this study we used the spatially dense network of low-cost PurpleAir (PA) sensors. Approximately 400 sensors are deployed in Los Angeles County, with 22 located within 700 meters of a major roadway. Plotting the PM2.5 concentrations for each PA sensor located within 700 meters of a roadway between January 2019 and December 2021 revealed no distance-decay trend. We then used the nearby personal weather stations to determine the hourly wind direction at each sensor and separated PM values according to whether they were downwind or upwind of their respective nearby roadways. The results showed that fine particles (PM2.5) were elevated within 240 meters of the roadway and decayed to the background concentration by 430 meters. The concentrations were 16 to 24% higher than the background concentration and were higher in periods of higher atmospheric stability and lower wind speeds.

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    Authors: Ospino Rojas, Anderson;

    Environmental and epidemiological research has linked exposure to air pollution and extreme temperatures during the prenatal period to the incidence of fetal and infant death, adverse birth outcomes, and worse outcomes in adulthood and across generations. To minimize these adverse effects, policymakers can reduce ambient exposures (i.e., mitigation) or intervene with some program that lessens the impacts (i.e., adaptation). The first two chapters focus on the effects of air pollution shocks and the efficacy of free prenatal care to lessen its adverse effects on health at birth. The last chapter focuses on the effects of extreme temperatures and the efficacy of free prenatal care and air conditioning to lessen its adverse effects on birth outcomes (e.g., birthweight, weeks of gestation, low birthweight rate).The first chapter shows that the estimates of sulfur dioxide (SO2) effects on birth outcomes are susceptible to the window used to measure exposure during the prenatal period. Measuring exposure from conception to birth, I find a negative impact of SO2 on birthweight. In contrast, the estimate is positive when exposure is measured from conception to 39 weeks. Using each county’s 52-week lagged SO2 concentrations as a placebo, I find that using a fixed 39-week window from the date of conception is the most reliable methodology. However, this methodology's estimates indicate that higher SO2 concentrations increase birth weight. I present evidence suggesting that this counterintuitive result is caused by livebirth bias (i.e., the infants that survive pollution shocks are positively selected). I overcome this problem by using the number of infants born with non-adverse outcomes per woman of reproductive age as the dependent variable instead of traditional outcomes (e.g., birthweight, low birthweight, or preterm birth rate). Applying this transformation, I find that SO2 worsens health at birth, and its effects increase with the pollutant’s concentration (i.e., the SO2-birth outcome damage function is convex). Furthermore, the effects are more prominent for blacks than whites.The second chapter tests whether access to free prenatal care lessens the adverse health effects of exposure to air pollution in utero. I study how the expansion of Medicaid (publicly-provided health insurance for low-income households) changed the effect of prenatal exposure to SO2 on fetal death and birth outcomes. Theoretically, the effect is ambiguous: Even if free prenatal supplementation (i.e., vitamins, iron, calcium) lessens the biological impact of air pollution, there could be a substitution between access to prenatal care and pollution avoidance. High SO2 concentrations increased fetal deaths, and Medicaid’s expansion attenuated this effect. Estimating the impact of Medicaid on the SO2-birth outcome relationship is empirically challenging because the infants marginally saved by Medicaid could be positively or negatively selected. The analysis of traditional outcome variables (e.g., birthweight, low birthweight rate) suggests that Medicaid had no impact or even intensified the damage of SO2 on health at birth. To account for the possibility of livebirth (i.e, sample selection) bias, I instead analyzed the number of non-low birth weight (i.e., healthy) infants per woman of reproductive age (nlbw/w). Using this dependent variable, I find that Medicaid mitigated the effect of SO2 on nlbw/w in low-pollution areas and at the national level. Furthermore, the reduction was larger for blacks than whites; thus, Medicaid improved environmental justice in the US by shrinking the gap in the health effects of in-utero air pollution between races.The third chapter tests whether access to free prenatal care and air conditioning lessens the adverse health effects of extreme temperatures in a non-rural setting. I study how the expansion of Medicaid changed the effect of extreme in-utero temperatures on birth outcomes in the US. In developed countries, physiological stress is the primary mechanism through which temperature affects pregnancy outcomes. In rural areas of the developing world, it can also do so indirectly through changes in real income, increased incidence of maternal disease, or increased conflicts. The results suggest that access to prenatal care did not lessen the impacts of extreme temperatures on birth outcomes. However, the diffusion of air conditioning reduced the effects of extremely hot days.Overall, the results of these chapters suggest that providing low-income women with free prenatal care is a promising intervention to lessen the health impacts of in-utero air pollution but not those of extreme temperatures. On the other hand, air conditioning is a promising intervention to lessen the health effects of extreme heat on birth outcomes.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Despeines, Yadhiera;
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    Authors: Mendoza, Paulene;
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    Authors: Bellavance, Marie-Andrée; Gallais, Sophie;

    Mental health and wellbeing are the critical basis by which humans can flourish, fulfil their potential, and remain resilient in the face of stress and adversity. However, mental disorders are one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. In Arctic and Subarctic regions, these challenges are particularly pressing because of the rapid social and cultural changes and their impacts on the wellbeing of Indigenous populations. Improving our capacity for diagnosis and treatment in multiple populations is crucial and involves providing new understanding of biological roots and sex-based differences of mental health problems, new early-detection methods, and new environmental and biological mechanisms that can be targeted for intervention. Moreover, sociocultural and environmental factors influence mental health and need to be considered as determinants of health. Within this holistic understanding of mental wellness, access to housing plays a major role. Indeed, not only do northern communities lack housing stock, but what is available may be of lower quality. This chapter gathers a selection of Sentinel North research results from a broad range of disciplines that contribute to understand the effects of stress on mental health and the mechanisms underlying the resilience to stress, to develop new tools for a better understanding of the brain and an early diagnosis of mental disorders, and to encourage an ecosystem approach for mental health and prevent health issues through culturally adapted actions on determinants of health, like access to sustainable and culturally appropriate housing.

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    Authors: Gao, Zhiyuan;

    Mercury is a contaminant of global concern. It is present widely in global ecosystems and its methylated species is a known developmental neurotoxin to humans. The fate and behaviour of mercury in the environment are largely affected by its speciation, especially among different oxidation states controlled by redox chemistry. Mercury redox chemistry is the key chemical mechanism mediating the transport of the contaminant, yet it has not been well represented in global and regional mercury transport models. Most models rely heavily on computational data to parameterize mercury redox chemistry, and large discrepancies have been reported between the model parameters and experimental results. In this thesis, several critically important mercury redox processes in the atmosphere and marine cryosphere are investigated experimentally in laboratory, mesocosm and field studies. In the atmosphere, in-cloud mercury photoreduction is found to occur at rates that are much slower than those currently used in models, questioning the presumed dominance of the aqueous-phase reduction in the atmosphere. Mercury redox reactions are also studied in an outdoor sea ice mesocosm. At the atmosphere-sea ice interface, saline surfaces of experimental sea ice are shown to support heterogenous photochemical reactions causing the depletion of gaseous elemental mercury in the atmospheric boundary layer; whereas at the sea ice-seawater interface, cryo-photochemical processes could cause the decrease in the concentrations of dissolved gaseous mercury during the formation of sea ice. Overall, the results from this thesis research provide new and important concepts and experimental datasets to the mercury redox mechanism during its geochemical cycle. The results will advance model parametrizations on mercury redox chemistry and improve future projections of mercury cycling in the atmosphere and the Arctic marine cryosphere, which are especially important under a rapidly changing environment. Furthermore, the results also validate the mesocosm approach on studying cryo-photochemical processes in the sea ice environment, which opens up a new platform to study the geochemistry of other contaminants in the marine cryosphere.

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    Authors: Higa, Justin T;

    Fracturing is a fundamental mechanical weathering process that affects geology from global tectonics to local outcrops. Despite vast differences in size, fractures are formed through similar mechanisms and have interdependent relationships, where small fractures can contribute to the formation of larger ones and vice versa. Chapter 1 of this dissertation introduces the study of fractures and their wide-ranging effects on plate tectonics and landscape weathering. The subsequent chapters describe three research projects focused on the impacts of fractures on tectonic and geomorphological processes at two locations on the west coast of North America. These studies utilize a diverse array of methods from various fields, including geomorphology, structural geology, geochronology, hydrology, and geophysics. Together, this dissertation summarizes how fractures influence Earth’s history in fault systems, weathered profiles, and landslides.Chapter 2 describes how faults on microcontinents record the dynamic evolution of plate boundaries. However, most microcontinents are submarine and difficult to study. Here, I show that the southern part of the Isla �ngel de la Guarda (IAG) microcontinent, in the northern Gulf of California rift, is densely faulted by a late Quaternary-active normal fault zone. To characterize the onshore kinematics of this Almeja fault zone, I integrate remote fault mapping using high-resolution satellite- and drone-based topography with neotectonic field mapping. I then analyzed 13 luminescence ages from sediment deposits offset or impounded by faults to constrain the timing of fault offsets. I found that north-striking normal faults in the Almeja fault zone continue offshore to the south and likely into the nascent North Salsipuedes basin southwest of IAG. Late Pleistocene and Holocene luminescence ages indicate that the most recent onshore fault activity occurred in the last ∼50 kyr. These observations suggest that the North Salsipuedes basin is kinematically linked with and continues onshore as the active Almeja fault zone. I suggest that fragmentation of the evolving IAG microcontinent may not yet be complete and that the Pacific-North America plate boundary is either not fully localized onto the Ballenas transform fault and Lower Delfin pull-apart basin or is in the initial stage of a plate boundary reorganization.In Chapter 3, I explain how diverse mechanical and chemical processes contribute to the breakdown of fresh bedrock and generate the geologic critical zone (CZ) consisting of soil, saprolite, and weathered bedrock. The deep CZ can extend from 1 – 100’s m below ground. However, the spatial and depth distribution of weathered bedrock is difficult to determine from Earth's surface. In this study, I investigate the deep CZ structures at a well-studied, steep, and forested site near Coos Bay, Oregon, USA, using a combination of geophysical methods and process-based modeling. P-wave seismic refraction surveys show a sharp velocity transition at a surface-parallel, ~5 m-deep, and relatively slow velocity contour of 1220 m/s. I also show another transition near contours of 2200 m/s with spatially varying and undulating patterns. These boundaries may represent pervasively oxidized bedrock and fractured bedrock layers observed in a nearby, deep borehole. Then, comparison with Schmidt hammer and ground penetrating radar data reveal areas of highly weathered, porous, and heterogeneous soil and saprolite. I compare these datasets with two process-based models that predict weathered bedrock structures: one based on bedrock drainage of reactive water and the other on topographic stress-induced fracturing. Although these models can reproduce some first-order similarities in my surveys, the mismatch between simulated and inferred weathering may suggest other factors, such as pre-existing fractures, lithological heterogeneity, or landscape evolution, may contribute to variations in the deep CZ. Together, this study underscores the importance of site-specific field observations to evaluate bedrock weathering processes in natural landscapes.Then, Chapter 4 investigates CZ controls on the occurrence of shallow soil landslides at the study site of Chapter 3, where mechanical and chemical processes may have generated weathered bedrock with increased porosities and hydraulic conductivities underneath soil. Field studies suggest that exfiltrating groundwater from weathered bedrock may be an important driver of initiating shallow landslides. However, variations of deep CZ structure are typically not considered in slope stability models due to a lack of information about the subsurface. Here, I conduct numerical experiments coupling process-based models of 1) deep critical zone development, 2) three-dimensional transient hydrology, and 3) multidimensional slope stability. I show that spatial variations of weathered bedrock thickness control the location of infiltrating and exfiltrating groundwater seepage, induce pore pressure variations at the soil-bedrock boundary, and impact shallow landslide occurrence, size, and location. This work suggests that characterizing the deep CZ is critical for effectively simulating groundwater seepage and assessing the likelihood, magnitude, and timing of shallow landslides.

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    Authors: Pu, Judy Pin;

    Cryogenian Snowball Earth glaciations are some of the most extreme changes in Earth’s climate through its history. Decades of work have established the global ubiquity of Snowball Earth sedimentary deposits and their synchroneity in time, yet key questions remain concerning the potential causes for global glaciations and their drastically different durations and expressions in the rock record. This dissertation addresses these questions and proposes explanations for the onset of global glaciation and how the abrupt termination of a Snowball event could explain the differences in chemical sediments seen between the two Cryogenian Snowball events. In Chapter 1, I evaluate the emplacement of a large igneous province as a potential trigger for the Sturtian Snowball Earth (717-661 Ma). This work was done in collaboration with Francis A. Macdonald, Mark D. Schmitz, Robert H. Rainbird, Wouter Bleeker, Barra A. Peak, Rebecca M. Flowers, Paul F. Hoffman, Matthew Rioux, and Michael A. Hamilton. Previous geochronology has suggested a rough coincidence of glacial onset with one of the largest magmatic episodes in the geological record, the Franklin large igneous province. I show that chemical abrasion-isotope dilution-thermal ionization mass spectrometry (CA-ID-TIMS) U-Pb geochronology on zircon and baddeleyite from sills associated with the paleo-equatorial Franklin large igneous province in Arctic Canada record rapid emplacement between 719.86 ± 0.21 and 718.61 ± 0.30 Ma ago, 0.9 to 1.6 Ma before the onset of widespread glaciation. Geologic observations and (U-Th)/He dates on Franklin sills are compatible with major post–Franklin exhumation, possibly due to development of mafic volcanic highlands on windward equatorial Laurentia and increased global weatherability. After a transient magmatic CO2 flux, long-term carbon sequestration associated with increased weatherability could have nudged Earth over the threshold for runaway ice-albedo feedback.In Chapter 2, I address whether there is evidence for glaciations in the 50 Myr prior to the Sturtian glaciation by examining the proposed ca. 750 Ma Kaigas glaciation. I evaluate this hypothesis at the eponymous location with detailed stratigraphy and geochronology through the Kaigas, Rosh Pinah, and Numees formations on the western margin of the Kalahari craton in southern Namibia. This work was done in collaboration with Francis A. Macdonald, Emily F. Smith, Jahandar Ramezani, and Nicholas Swanson-Hysell. We find that glacial deposits previously assigned to the Kaigas Formation are instead ca. 717-661 Ma diamictites of the Sturtian Numees Formation. Pre-Numees strata, including the Kaigas Formation, host facies associations diagnostic of fan delta deposition along an active normal fault. Interbedded volcanic rocks in the Rosh Pinah Formation overlying the Kaigas Formation were dated with U-Pb CA-ID-TIMS on zircon at ca. 752 Ma. These Tonian deposits are interpreted as being deposited in an active rift basin without evidence for glaciation. Rosh Pinah magmatism could be correlative with the Mount Rogers Complex in Virginia, USA, consistent with a scenario of the Kalahari craton actively rifting from Laurentia and associated terranes within 20º of the equator at the time. We conclude that, at least in marine settings, evidence for low-latitude glaciation is limited to the 717-635 Ma Cryogenian Period. In Chapter 3, I propose an explanation for why the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations differ. This work was done in collaboration with Mark D. Schmitz and Francis A. Macdonald. I present new geological mapping, measured stratigraphic sections, and U-Pb zircon geochronology and geochemistry on Cryogenian successions exposed in the Naukluft Nappes of Namibia. Stratigraphic sections measured in the context of geological mapping document glacial deposition on a slope setting below the ice grounding line. Deglaciation is marked by an abrupt coarsening, boulder-sized dropstones, and the appearance of volcaniclastic deposits. Large lithic fragments within the volcaniclastics and detrital zircon provenance using laser ablation split stream mass spectrometry suggest a local source. CA-ID-TIMS on these units yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U date of 635.84 ± 0.22/0.29/0.71 Ma, which is interpreted as a depositional age. We suggest that glacio-isostatic unloading reactivated the formerly rifted passive margin. This age overlaps with dates near the top of Marinoan glacial deposits on the Swakop terrane, Australia, and South China. We suggest that all of these dates record deglaciation and that deglacial volcanism associated with isostatic unloading provided a positive feedback for both albedo and CO2 that shortened the Marinoan glaciation.

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    Authors: Isied, Margaret;

    Humans are a product of their environment – the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, are all in one way or another our “environment”, which in turn, impacts our health. Air pollution has been a long-standing issue, from the time humans innovated cooking over fire stoves, to our present-day reliance on transportation, technology, and industry. Exposure to air pollution has been linked to premature deaths, respiratory diseases, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and bronchitis, total body inflammation, and cancer. We are exposed to environmental contaminants everywhere and every day. For example, pesticides are used for farming practices to increase crop yield. With the advancements in commercial farming, any number of highly toxic, highly volatile pesticides are ubiquitously used within the same area. Many communities living near major sources of air pollution, such as freeways, industrial sites, and agricultural areas, have been demonstrated to be disproportionately burdened by these environmental contaminants. While environmental conditions have improved drastically since the 1970s, there is high variability of what communities are experiencing at the local level. Recently, there has been a rise in environmental concerns locally; communities are concerned that current environmental monitoring and assessment methods are flawed in two ways. First, these methods are focused on regional impacts not capturing local environmental conditions within smaller communities. Since the 1970s, environmental agencies have evaluated environmental contaminant levels using monitoring and modeling techniques that demonstrate how pollutant concentrations are impacting a region. Many of these methods were developed to demonstrate compliance with state and federal standards. For example, monitoring equipment is strategically placed to understand the impacts of air quality on a region, rather than a local community, and air dispersion modeling has typically been reserved for large industrial operations that are likely to exceed regional air quality standards. Second, these methods do not consider exposure to multiple environmental contaminants which, coupled with social burdens such as low income and limited access to resources, make communities more susceptible to health impacts, ultimately diminishing their quality of life. Single pollutant evaluations are not representative of real-world exposure scenarios. These concerns highlight a needed call to action to better understand and evaluate environmental pollutants. New or repurposed methods and tools would ultimately provide regulators data at a more granular scale to make decisions in the interest of specific communities, rather than over an entire region. A better understanding of pollution variation in a community would also help regulators know where to focus intervention efforts. My dissertation explores tools and methods with the goal to: (1) recommend how to use new low-cost sensor monitoring technology to successfully understand localized air quality impacts, (2) present a case study using localized air pollution data to better quantify community exposures to air pollution, and (3) explore how air dispersion modeling can be used to evaluate exposure to multiple pesticides at the local level. Results from this dissertation developed new methods for setting up low-cost air quality sensor networks, emphasize variable air pollution concentrations within communities, and demonstrated the feasibility of repurposing modeling tools to evaluate pesticide use. This research is critical to reinforcing the importance of implementing new methods and technologies to understand localized impacts and provide data to regulatory bodies who are responsible for emission control, land use decision making, and public health intervention.

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    Authors: Schoenfeld, Ashley Marie;

    Icy satellites of the outer solar system have become the primary target for planetary exploration because of their relevance to understanding of solar-system evolution and to the origin of life. Despite this importance, it remains unclear how different combinations of tectonic deformation, climate conditions, and surficial and interior processes have shaped geologically diverse paths of satellite evolution, as evident from their widely different surface morphologies. Here I address this fundamental question by conducting geological mapping of Enceladus and Titan, the two end-member icy satellites of Saturn; Enceladus has tectonic activity expressed by erupting plumes along active faults while Titan has a thick atmosphere that exerts strong control on its surface processes and hence surface morphologies. My studies on Enceladus focus on two subjects: (1) the transport time scale for nanoparticles of silica from the ocean floor to the erupting plumes and (2) the role of the non-tidal stress in controlling the phase lag of time-varying plume fluxes that share the same periodicity with the diurnal tide. I assess the transport time scale of silica particles based on experimentally determined scaling relationships for convection systems under rotation and entrainment of particles in thermally-driven convecting fluids. The physics-based analytical relationships obtained from this approach allow the establishment of the size of the silica particles to the thermal regime of the core, which in turn provides the basis for estimating the transport time scale of the particle through the ocean, which I find to be on the order of months. To assess the role of the non-tidal stress in controlling the phase lag of plume eruption on Enceladus, I conducted detailed structural mapping along geyser-hosting faults zones (i.e., the informally named tiger stripes in the literature). My mapping shows that the geysers are preferentially located at local extensional structures along overall strike-slip faults. In order to have simultaneous strike-slip fault motion and local development of extensional structures along the strike-slip faults, coeval shear and tensile failure is required. Imposing this condition and assuming that the peak-eruption time is the result of the superposed tidal and non-tidal stresses reaching the maximum tensile-stress value, I am able to use a stress-decomposition model to determine the static non-tidal stress field along geyser-hosting faults. The required non-title stress field is best explained by lateral viscous flow induced by the gradient of gravitational potential stored in an unevenly thick ice shell. My research on Titan focuses on the geomorphological response in space and time to climate change and tectonic deformation. In this end, I established the spatial distribution and temporal relationships among morphologically distinctive terrains through mapping in the South Belet and Soi Crater regions. The major finding of the work is that dunes and lakes are the youngest geomorphologic units resulting from the youngest climate condition that are superposed on top of hummocky, labyrinth, pitted, and mountainous terrains. The presence of dune fields requires aeolian transport, the lake and labyrinth terrains surface and subsurface fluid-flow activities, and the pitted terrain removal of volatile materials. The oldest mountainous terrain is best explained by early tectonic deformation. The spatial distribution of dunes and lakes is consistent with the global mapping results that climate-sensitive terrains are distributed symmetrically with respect to the equator, reflecting the symmetry of the atmosphere circulation.

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    Authors: Yoo, Kyongwon;

    As car manufacturers have reduced vehicle tailpipe emissions, roadway sources of PM2.5 (particulate matter with diameters ≤ 2.5 μm) generated by brake wear, tire wear, and resuspended dust from the roadway have played an increasingly significant role in near-roadway exposure. In this study we used the spatially dense network of low-cost PurpleAir (PA) sensors. Approximately 400 sensors are deployed in Los Angeles County, with 22 located within 700 meters of a major roadway. Plotting the PM2.5 concentrations for each PA sensor located within 700 meters of a roadway between January 2019 and December 2021 revealed no distance-decay trend. We then used the nearby personal weather stations to determine the hourly wind direction at each sensor and separated PM values according to whether they were downwind or upwind of their respective nearby roadways. The results showed that fine particles (PM2.5) were elevated within 240 meters of the roadway and decayed to the background concentration by 430 meters. The concentrations were 16 to 24% higher than the background concentration and were higher in periods of higher atmospheric stability and lower wind speeds.

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    Authors: Ospino Rojas, Anderson;

    Environmental and epidemiological research has linked exposure to air pollution and extreme temperatures during the prenatal period to the incidence of fetal and infant death, adverse birth outcomes, and worse outcomes in adulthood and across generations. To minimize these adverse effects, policymakers can reduce ambient exposures (i.e., mitigation) or intervene with some program that lessens the impacts (i.e., adaptation). The first two chapters focus on the effects of air pollution shocks and the efficacy of free prenatal care to lessen its adverse effects on health at birth. The last chapter focuses on the effects of extreme temperatures and the efficacy of free prenatal care and air conditioning to lessen its adverse effects on birth outcomes (e.g., birthweight, weeks of gestation, low birthweight rate).The first chapter shows that the estimates of sulfur dioxide (SO2) effects on birth outcomes are susceptible to the window used to measure exposure during the prenatal period. Measuring exposure from conception to birth, I find a negative impact of SO2 on birthweight. In contrast, the estimate is positive when exposure is measured from conception to 39 weeks. Using each county’s 52-week lagged SO2 concentrations as a placebo, I find that using a fixed 39-week window from the date of conception is the most reliable methodology. However, this methodology's estimates indicate that higher SO2 concentrations increase birth weight. I present evidence suggesting that this counterintuitive result is caused by livebirth bias (i.e., the infants that survive pollution shocks are positively selected). I overcome this problem by using the number of infants born with non-adverse outcomes per woman of reproductive age as the dependent variable instead of traditional outcomes (e.g., birthweight, low birthweight, or preterm birth rate). Applying this transformation, I find that SO2 worsens health at birth, and its effects increase with the pollutant’s concentration (i.e., the SO2-birth outcome damage function is convex). Furthermore, the effects are more prominent for blacks than whites.The second chapter tests whether access to free prenatal care lessens the adverse health effects of exposure to air pollution in utero. I study how the expansion of Medicaid (publicly-provided health insurance for low-income households) changed the effect of prenatal exposure to SO2 on fetal death and birth outcomes. Theoretically, the effect is ambiguous: Even if free prenatal supplementation (i.e., vitamins, iron, calcium) lessens the biological impact of air pollution, there could be a substitution between access to prenatal care and pollution avoidance. High SO2 concentrations increased fetal deaths, and Medicaid’s expansion attenuated this effect. Estimating the impact of Medicaid on the SO2-birth outcome relationship is empirically challenging because the infants marginally saved by Medicaid could be positively or negatively selected. The analysis of traditional outcome variables (e.g., birthweight, low birthweight rate) suggests that Medicaid had no impact or even intensified the damage of SO2 on health at birth. To account for the possibility of livebirth (i.e, sample selection) bias, I instead analyzed the number of non-low birth weight (i.e., healthy) infants per woman of reproductive age (nlbw/w). Using this dependent variable, I find that Medicaid mitigated the effect of SO2 on nlbw/w in low-pollution areas and at the national level. Furthermore, the reduction was larger for blacks than whites; thus, Medicaid improved environmental justice in the US by shrinking the gap in the health effects of in-utero air pollution between races.The third chapter tests whether access to free prenatal care and air conditioning lessens the adverse health effects of extreme temperatures in a non-rural setting. I study how the expansion of Medicaid changed the effect of extreme in-utero temperatures on birth outcomes in the US. In developed countries, physiological stress is the primary mechanism through which temperature affects pregnancy outcomes. In rural areas of the developing world, it can also do so indirectly through changes in real income, increased incidence of maternal disease, or increased conflicts. The results suggest that access to prenatal care did not lessen the impacts of extreme temperatures on birth outcomes. However, the diffusion of air conditioning reduced the effects of extremely hot days.Overall, the results of these chapters suggest that providing low-income women with free prenatal care is a promising intervention to lessen the health impacts of in-utero air pollution but not those of extreme temperatures. On the other hand, air conditioning is a promising intervention to lessen the health effects of extreme heat on birth outcomes.

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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ eScholarship - Unive...arrow_drop_down
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