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36 Research products

  • COVID-19
  • 2014-2023
  • Open Access
  • Other ORP type
  • ES
  • English
  • Recolector de Ciencia Abierta, RECOLECTA
  • Diposit Digital de Documents de la UAB
  • COVID-19

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Moreno Pérez, Carlos; Minozzo, Marco;

    Este documento estudia las reacciones de los mercados financieros de Estados Unidos a nuevas noticias de la prensa desde enero de 2019 hasta el primero de mayo de 2020. Con este fin, construimos medidas del contenido y del sentimiento de las noticias mediante el desarrollo de índices apropiados a partir de los titulares y fragmentos de The New York Times, utilizando técnicas de aprendizaje automático no supervisado. En particular, usamos el modelo Asignación Latente de Dirichlet para inferir el contenido (temas) de los artículos, y Word Embedding (implementado con el modelo Skip-gram) y K-Medias para medir su sentimiento (incertidumbre). De esta forma, elaboramos un conjunto de índices de incertidumbre temáticos diarios. Estos índices se utilizan luego para explicar el comportamiento de los mercados financieros de Estados Unidos mediante la implementación de un conjunto de modelos EGARCH. En conclusión, encontramos que dos de los índices de incertidumbre temáticos (uno relacionado con noticias del COVID-19 y otro con noticias de la guerra comercial) explican gran parte de los movimientos en los mercados financieros desde principios de 2019 hasta los cuatro primeros meses de 2020. Además, encontramos que el índice de incertidumbre temático relacionado con la economía y la Reserva Federal está positivamente relacionado con los mercados financieros, capturando las acciones de la Reserva Federal durante períodos de incertidumbre. This paper investigates the reactions of US financial markets to press news from January 2019 to 1 May 2020. To this end, we deduce the content and sentiment of the news by developing apposite indices from the headlines and snippets of The New York Times, using unsupervised machine learning techniques. In particular, we use Latent Dirichlet Allocation to infer the content (topics) of the articles, and Word Embedding (implemented with the Skip-gram model) and K-Means to measure their sentiment (uncertainty). In this way, we arrive at the definition of a set of daily topic-specific uncertainty indices. These indices are then used to find explanations for the behaviour of the US financial markets by implementing a batch of EGARCH models. In substance, we find that two topic-specific uncertainty indices, one related to COVID-19 news and the other to trade war news, explain the bulk of the movements in the financial markets from the beginning of 2019 to end-April 2020. Moreover, we find that the topic-specific uncertainty index related to the economy and the Federal Reserve is positively related to the financial markets, meaning that our index is able to capture actions of the Federal Reserve during periods of uncertainty.

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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Recolector de Cienci...arrow_drop_down
      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Anghel, Brindusa; Lacuesta Gabarain, Aitor; Tagliati, Federico;

    Este documento analiza las competencias financieras de las empresas españolas de menos de 50 trabajadores (pequeñas empresas) a partir de una encuesta elaborada por el Banco de España entre marzo y mayo de 2021, que se engloba dentro de un proyecto desarrollado por la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE): International Network on Financial Education (OCDE/INFE). La encuesta incluye una serie de preguntas con el objetivo de medir las competencias financieras de las empresas (conocimientos, actitudes y comportamientos financieros), así como la tenencia de instrumentos financieros, el impacto de la crisis del COVID-19 sobre su actividad o el nivel de digitalización de la empresa. Estas preguntas deben de ser contestadas por el propietario de la empresa, siempre que tome alguna decisión financiera en relación con aquella. Los principales resultados de la encuesta apuntan a que, en general, en España los propietarios de las empresas con menos de 20 trabajadores y las empresas de servicios de alojamiento y hostelería, construcción y otros servicios personales (grupo heterogéneo de ramas, que incluiría empresas de educación, reparaciones o lavandería, entre otras) presentan unos conocimientos financieros bajos en comparación con las empresas de entre 20 y 49 trabajadores y con las del resto de los sectores. En cuanto a las actitudes financieras, los propietarios de las empresas de más de 10 trabajadores presentan una mayor tendencia a establecer objetivos financieros a largo plazo respecto a los propietarios de empresas de menos de 10 trabajadores. Algunos comportamientos financieros están menos generalizados en las empresas de menor tamaño (y especialmente en las de menos de 5 trabajadores), como, por ejemplo, disponer de estrategias en caso de robo y considerar opciones de distintos proveedores de productos o de servicios financieros. Finalmente, las pequeñas empresas españolas, independientemente de su tamaño, sobresalen por el bajo porcentaje de propietarios que han pensado en la financiación de su jubilación. El uso de los instrumentos de capital y de otras formas de financiación más recientes como los bonos sostenibles, los business angels o la financiación participativa) es marginal en las pequeñas empresas españolas. Asimismo, es limitado en estas empresas el empleo del seguro de daños materiales, y principalmente del de interrupción de negocio. No se observan diferencias importantes en los conocimientos, actitudes y comportamientos financieros según el género del propietario de la empresa. Además, en general, las competencias financieras medias en las pequeñas empresas mejoran con el nivel educativo tan solo si el propietario tiene formación concreta en temas relacionados con la empresa, la economía o las finanzas. Otras características que se asocian positivamente con las capacidades financieras, independientemente del nivel educativo, son disponer de 10 años de experiencia empresarial o tener un progenitor empresario. El impacto de la crisis del COVID-19 en el nivel de facturación, en los beneficios y en la deuda fue bastante similar en empresas con distintos grados de competencias financieras. Sin embargo, los efectos negativos en el empleo y en la liquidez fueron algo menores para los cuartiles más altos de competencias financieras de los propietarios. Adicionalmente, mayores conocimientos financieros estuvieron asociados a una probabilidad superior de solicitar y de obtener un nuevo préstamo o de beneficiarse de un aval público. Las empresas con menores conocimientos financieros sí utilizaron en mayor medida transferencias de renta, así como moratorias de alquiler. Finalmente, existe una relación positiva entre competencias financieras y mayor nivel de digitalización en la empresa con anterioridad a la pandemia. Sin embargo, no existe correlación de competencias financieras y un incremento de las actividades digitales tras el COVID-19. This paper analyses the financial competencies of Spanish enterprises with fewer than 50 employees (small enterprises) based on a survey conducted by the Banco de España between March and May 2021 as part of a project launched by the OECD (International Network on Financial Education, OECD/INFE). The survey includes a series of questions aimed at measuring firms’ financial competencies (financial knowledge, attitudes and behaviour) and the financial instruments held by them, the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on their activity and their level of digitalisation. It is the owners of the firms who should answer these questions insofar as it is they who make financial decisions in relation to their firm. The main results of the survey suggest that, in Spain, owners of enterprises with fewer than 20 employees have little financial knowledge compared with those of enterprises with between 20 and 49 employees. The same is true of firms in the accommodation and food service activities, construction and other personal service sectors (a heterogeneous group of sectors which would include firms in education, repairs or laundry services, among others) compared with firms in other sectors. In terms of financial attitudes, owners of firms with more than ten employees have a greater tendency to set long-term financial goals than owners of firms with fewer than ten employees. Some financial behaviours (such as having strategies in place in the event of theft or considering different options for their financial product and service providers) are less widespread among smaller firms, especially those with fewer than five employees. Lastly, the percentage of Spanish small enterprises, regardless of size, whose owners have thought about how to finance their retirement is remarkably low. The use of capital instruments and other more recent types of financing (such as sustainable bonds, business angels or crowdfunding) is marginal in small Spanish enterprises. Likewise, the use of property and, particularly, business interruption insurance is limited among these firms. There are no discernible, significant differences in financial knowledge, attitudes and behaviours in terms of the gender of the business owner. Also, in general, the average financial competencies in small enterprises improve with the level of educational attainment only if the owner has specific training in business, economics or finance. Other characteristics positively associated with financial competencies, irrespective of educational attainment, are having ten years of entrepreneurial experience or having an entrepreneur for a parent. The impact of the COVID-19 crisis on the level of turnover, profits and debt was quite similar for firms with different degrees of financial competencies. However, the negative impact on employment and liquidity was somewhat lower for the higher quartiles of owners’ financial competencies. Additionally, higher financial knowledge was associated with being more likely to apply for and obtain a new loan or benefit from a public guarantee. Firms with less financial knowledge did make greater use of income transfers and rental moratoria. Lastly, there is a positive correlation between financial competencies and a higher level of digitalisation in the firm pre-pandemic. However, there is no such correlation between financial competencies and digital activities following COVID-19.

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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Recolector de Cienci...arrow_drop_down
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    Authors: Pérez Álvarez, Manuel A.;

    El Fondo Monetario Internacional (FMI) realizó en agosto de 2021 una nueva asignación de derechos especiales de giro (DEG), por un importe equivalente a 650 mm de dólares estadounidenses. Se trata de una cuantía significativa, que triplica los saldos actuales. En particular, para España ha supuesto un incremento de un 16 % de las reservas exteriores, así como de los activos frente al FMI, que alcanzarían un 22 % de las reservas en el balance del Banco de España, en comparación con el 10 % actual. El objetivo de esta expansión de los DEG es dar apoyo a un grupo de países con mayores dificultades para combatir el impacto de la pandemia de COVID-19, a lo que se ha unido una mayor necesidad de divisas para obtener suministros básicos, con un cierre de los mercados de capitales internacionales. Es previsible que la nueva asignación dinamice la operativa en DEG, dados su elevado importe, la acuciante necesidad de fondos en algunos países y el aprendizaje respecto a la asignación de 2009. En este documento se explican las características del uso de los DEG como fuente efectiva de liquidez, con la conclusión de que el modo en que se hace efectiva la emisión de este instrumento es mediante las transacciones, y de que es la asignación el presupuesto formal de su existencia. Por tanto, el aspecto clave para su efectividad será la realidad de las transacciones que se hagan para obtener liquidez en el tráfico internacional. Con el objetivo de hacer un seguimiento de su uso, se sugiere una ratio de su liquidez. Por otro lado, en relación con la magnitud de la asignación, y puesto que se realiza en función de las cuotas de cada país miembro del FMI, se observa un «acaparamiento» por parte de los países desarrollados, frente a los que muestran más dificultades en el acceso a los mercados, que hará inevitable la adopción de medidas que favorezcan la recirculación de los DEG para alcanzar sus fines, de modo que se complementen eficazmente las reservas disponibles en el marco del comercio internacional. In August 2021, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) made a new allocation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) equivalent to $650 billion. This significant amount has tripled the total existing stock of SDRs. For Spain it involves an increase of 16% in foreign reserves, and an increase in receivables from the IMF, which amount to 22% of the reserves on the balance sheet of the Banco de España, as compared with 10% at present. The purpose of this expansion of SDRs is to support a group of countries that are having most difficulty fighting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. These countries have a greater need for foreign exchange to obtain basic supplies just when they are shut out of international capital markets. The new allocation is likely to boost SDR transactions given its large amount, the urgent need for funds in some countries and the experience of the 2009 allocation. This paper explains the characteristics of the use of SDRs as an effective source of liquidity, concluding that the way in which the issuance of this instrument is made effective is by means of transactions, allocation being the formal prerequisite for their existence. Accordingly, the key to their effectiveness will be the transactions actually carried out to obtain liquidity in international business. A liquidity ratio is proposed for monitoring their use. With regard to the magnitude of the allocation and, given that it is based on the quotas of each IMF member country, the developed countries have received the bulk of the allocation, as opposed to those countries having greater difficulty accessing the markets. Accordingly, measures will have to be taken to promote the passing on of SDRs so that their purpose can be achieved and they effectively supplement the reserves available within the framework of international trade.

    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Recolector de Cienci...arrow_drop_down
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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Recolector de Cienci...arrow_drop_down
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    Authors: Pigozzi, Fabio; Wolfarth, Bernd; Cintron Rodriguez, Ana; Steinacker, Juergen Michael; +29 Authors

    The COVID-19 pandemic has created many challenges to ensure a safe environment for competitive sport. While modern medicine has already developed effective protocols for the treatment and prevention of the disease, there are serious concerns about hosting a sporting event of the scale of the Olympic Games, where more than 11¿000 athletes from over 200 nations are expected to participate. Accordingly, there have been many calls to cancel the Tokyo Olympic Games, also known as Tokyo 2020, in both the international press and the scientific literature. A recent perspective published in the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) highlights the complexity and risks of convening the Tokyo Olympic Games during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the many uncertainties, much has been learnt over the past 18 months and many policies trialled and tested to protect athletes during sports participation...

    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Recolector de Cienci...arrow_drop_down
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    Authors: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC);

    La COVID-19 ens ha fet present com mai la nostra vulnerabilitat com a éssers humans, tant pel que fa a l'emergència sanitària com per les rèpliques economicosocials encara presents. Però, alhora, ha estimulat canvis, aliances i avenços d'una profunditat que tot just encertem a endevinar. I és que, com ens recorda el filòsof i professor de la UOC Miquel Seguró, tot i que la fragilitat s'acostuma a presentar com un tret negatiu, aquesta es troba íntimament vinculada a allò humà i, degudament integrada i viscuda, ens permet adaptar-nos a les novetats, ens esperona a col·laborar amb tercers i ens obliga a superar-nos. La COVID-19 nos ha hecho más evidente que nunca nuestra vulnerabilidad como seres humanos, tanto por la emergencia sanitaria como por las réplicas economico-sociales aún presentes. Pero, a la vez, ha estimulado cambios, alianzas y avances de una profundidad que apenas empezamos a adivinar. Y es que, como nos recuerda el filósofo y profesor de la UOC Miquel Seguró, aunque la fragilidad suele presentarse como un rasgo negativo, esta se encuentra íntimamente vinculada a lo humano y, debidamente integrada y vivida, nos permite adaptarnos a las novedades, nos incita a colaborar con terceros y nos obliga a superarnos. COVID-19 has made us more aware than ever of our vulnerability as human beings, both with regard to the health emergency and its ongoing economic and social consequences. That being said, it has also led to changes, alliances and progress, the depth of which we are just now starting to realize. And the truth is, as UOC philosopher and faculty member Miquel Seguró says, even though fragility is usually presented as a negative trait, it is closely linked to the human condition and, once accepted and experienced, allows us to adapt to whatever comes our way, pushes us to collaborate with others and forces us to do better.

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    Authors: Martínez-Bravo, Mónica; Sanz Alonso, Carlos;

    Mediante dos nuevas encuestas online llevadas a cabo en mayo y noviembre de 2020, en este documento estudiamos las consecuencias de las primeras etapas de la pandemia de COVID-19 para los hogares españoles. Documentamos un efecto importante y negativo sobre los ingresos de los hogares. En mayo de 2020, el hogar promedio había perdido el 16 % de sus ingresos prepandemia. Además, esta caída fue muy desigual: mientras que los hogares del quintil más rico perdieron el 6,8 % de sus ingresos, los del quintil más pobre perdieron el 27 %. También mostramos que la pandemia hizo más profunda la brecha de género en ingresos: en promedio, las mujeres experimentaron una pérdida de ingresos tres puntos porcentuales mayor que la de los hombres. Si bien esto es coherente con hallazgos anteriores de la literatura, en este trabajo documentamos que este efecto se debe a la evolución de los ingresos de las mujeres en hogares de ingresos medios. Finalmente, proporcionamos evidencia de que los españoles experimentaron descensos moderados en sus niveles de bienestar psicológico. Este efecto es similar para las personas de diferentes niveles de ingresos. Sin embargo, las razones que hay detrás de las pérdidas de bienestar difieren: las personas más ricas están más preocupadas por la pérdida de contacto con sus seres queridos, mientras que las personas de bajos ingresos es más probable que mencionen la pérdida de ingresos y del empleo como un motivo clave de deterioro emocional. Using two novel online surveys collected in May and November 2020, we study the consequences of the first stages of the COVID-19 pandemic on Spanish households. We document a large and negative effect on household income. By May 2020 the average individual lived in a household that had lost 16% of their pre-pandemic monthly income. Furthermore, this drop was highly unequal: while households in the richest quintile lost 6.8% of their income, those in the poorest quintile lost 27%. We also document that the pandemic deepened the gender-income gap: on average, women experienced a three-percentage-point larger income loss than men. While this is consistent with previous findings in the literature, in this paper we document that this effect is driven by women from middle-income households with kids. Finally, we provide evidence that Spanish individuals experienced moderate declines in their levels of psychological well-being. This effect is not different for individuals living in rich or poor households, but the reasons behind well-being losses do differ: richer individuals are more concerned about loss of contact with dear ones, while low-income individuals are more likely to mention loss of income and employment as a key source of emotional distress.

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    Authors: Gut, Ivo;

    Sesión 1. La vigilancia y el diagnóstico microbiológico de COVID-19. • Interaction of the virus and the host is very important • Virus needs to be handled in BSL2 laboratories • Host can present many predisposing low-risk contributing genetic factors – polygenic risk scores • Host can have rare variants that confer high risk – rare disease • Sequencing of the virus and host is possible • Data sharing accelerates discoveries • This can provide insight into the potential outcomes and guide treatment decisions No

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    Authors: Arce Hortigüela, Óscar Javier; Kataryniuk, Iván; Marín Bona, Paloma; Pérez García, Javier José;

    La Unión Europea (UE) requiere de una acción rápida, duradera y suficiente ante la crisis sanitaria y económica provocada por el Covid-19. Las respuestas dadas por el Banco Central Europeo (BCE) y el Consejo de la UE han sido efectivas para mitigar la incidencia de la crisis en el corto plazo y reducir los riesgos de su propagación, facilitando que los Estados miembros (EEMM) puedan movilizar un volumen significativo de recursos. No obstante, la dimensión de la crisis ha puesto en evidencia la falta de instrumentos clave de política económica comunes. En este documento se analizan las condiciones necesarias para una respuesta europea eficaz ante la crisis y sus posibles consecuencias futuras. En primer lugar, se esbozan los elementos básicos sobre los que debería pivotar la estrategia de recuperación, basada en dar una respuesta conjunta a los retos estructurales comunes —como la lucha contra el cambio climático, la digitalización, el aumento del nivel de inversión en salud pública y prevención sanitaria o una reestructuración de amplias áreas del tejido productivo—, con nuevos recursos y con un renovado impulso reformista. En segundo lugar, se detalla una propuesta para el diseño de un «Fondo de Recuperación» que permita movilizar recursos, con el doble objetivo de facilitar el mantenimiento de unas condiciones de financiación adecuadas para la deuda soberana de los EEMM —lo que exige dotar al Fondo de una capacidad de compra de títulos de deuda pública durante plazos dilatados— y de impulsar la financiación de proyectos específicos de naturaleza estructural afines a las necesidades estratégicas del conjunto de la UE. Este instrumento debe ser eficiente (regido por el principio de uso adecuado y proporcional de los recursos públicos), solidario (haciendo especialmente accesibles sus recursos a aquellos que más lo necesiten), equilibrado (eliminando riesgos de transferencias permanentes inducidos por comportamientos oportunistas de los miembros) y con una condicionalidad en el uso de sus recursos ligada a los propios objetivos de la estrategia de recuperación, con especial énfasis en potenciar las palancas de crecimiento. En la medida en que nace ligado a una estrategia europea de medio y largo plazo, el Fondo debería tener una vocación de vigencia durante un horizonte muy amplio, dando lugar posiblemente a una estructura permanente, y estar respaldado por el presupuesto de la UE, debidamente reforzado mediante recursos adicionales de los EEMM y por ingresos procedentes de la eventual implantación de nuevas figuras tributarias a escala de la UE. The European Union (EU) requires swift, lasting and sufficient action to combat the health and economic crisis triggered by COVID-19. The ECB and EU Council’s responses have been effective in mitigating the short-term impact of the crisis and reducing the risks of it becoming protracted by enabling the Member States (MSs) to mobilise a significant volume of funds. Nevertheless, the scale of the crisis has underlined the absence of key shared economic policy instruments. This article analyses the conditions required for an effective European response to the crisis and its possible consequences in the future. First, the article outlines the basic features which should underpin a recovery strategy based on providing a joint response to common structural challenges (the fight against climate change, digitalisation, higher investment in public health and disease prevention, and a restructuring of broad areas of the productive system) with fresh funds and a renewed reform drive. Second, a design proposal for a 'Recovery Fund' is set out. Funds will be mobilised with the twofold objective of maintaining suitable financing conditions for MSs’ sovereign debt (which requires giving the Fund the capacity to purchase government debt securities for an extended period of time) and boosting the financing of specific structural projects aligned with the strategic needs of the EU as a whole. This instrument must be efficient (governed by the principle of a suitable and proportionate use of public funds), show solidarity (by making its funds particularly available to those who most need them), be balanced (by eliminating permanent transfer risks resulting from the opportunistic behaviour of Member States) and have conditions attached to ensure that the funds are used to advance the objectives of the recovery strategy. Insofar as its creation is tied to a medium and long-term European strategy, the Fund’s effectiveness should be geared to covering a very extensive time frame, potentially laying the foundations for a permanent structure. And it should be backed by the EU budget, duly strengthened by additional funds from the MSs and receipts from the future introduction of new EU-wide taxes.

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    Authors: Brañas Garza, Pablo Ernesto; Jorrat, Diego; Alfonso Costillo, Antonio; Espín, Antonio M; +2 Authors

    Instructions: Exposure to the Covid-19 pandemic and economic decisions.

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    Authors: Hernández de Cos, Pablo;

    The coronavirus pandemic has placed our economy in an unprecedented situation. The adverse shock has been on an enormous scale and truly global in nature, and while it is foreseeably temporary it has the potential to cause structural harm. Certain characteristics of our economy – the sectoral specialisation of our productive system, the small average size of firms and the high temporary employment ratio – make it more vulnerable than other countries to this shock. This situation initially calls for immediate and forceful economic policies. These should be time-limited – until employment and economic activity regain momentum following the shutdown imposed – and internationally coordinated. The aim is to alleviate the loss of income of the households and firms affected by the crisis and to prevent a temporary shock from causing persistent effects over time. And in this connection, fiscal policy is the most suitable tool. Monetary policy should also operate actively to ensure appropriate financing and liquidity conditions for economic agents. Micro- and macroprudential policies should spur financial institutions to continue to see that lending reaches households and firms and, in turn, they should preserve the system’s financial stability. Moreover, the crisis, as it is global, requires an internationally coordinated response. At the European level, a joint response is imperative, underpinned by a financial resources- and risk-sharing mechanism, and a complete Banking Union. Once the height of this crisis is behind us, economic policies should essentially tackle the following challenges: to reduce the structural deficit and public debt, and to promote longterm growth. The strategy should rest on twin programmes: a medium-term budgetary consolidation programme which, through a review of spending and of the tax structure and capacity, enables health to be restored to our public finances; and a structural reforms programme that raises economic growth capacity, with particular attention to enhancing human capital and efficient R&D expenditure. La pandemia de coronavirus ha colocado nuestra economía en una situación inédita, por la enorme magnitud de esta perturbación adversa, su previsible temporalidad, aunque con potenciales daños estructurales, y su absoluta globalidad. Algunas características de la economía española —la especialización sectorial del tejido productivo, el reducido tamaño medio de las empresas y la elevada temporalidad en el empleo— la hacen más vulnerable que las de otros países a esta perturbación. Esta situación demanda, en una primera fase, políticas económicas inmediatas contundentes, acotadas en el tiempo —hasta que el empleo y la actividad económica recuperen el pulso tras el proceso de hibernación inducida— y coordinadas internacionalmente. El objetivo es paliar la pérdida de rentas de los hogares y las empresas afectados por la crisis, y evitar que una perturbación de carácter temporal genere efectos persistentes en el tiempo; para ello, la política fiscal es la herramienta más adecuada. La política monetaria debe operar también de manera enérgica para garantizar a los agentes económicos unas condiciones de financiación y liquidez adecuadas. Las políticas micro- y macroprudencial deben promover que las entidades financieras sigan haciendo llegar el crédito a las familias y a las empresas, y, a la vez, preservar la estabilidad financiera del sistema. Además, la crisis, por ser global, exige una respuesta coordinada a escala internacional y, en el plano europeo, una respuesta conjunta, soportada por un mecanismo de mutualización de recursos financieros y de riesgos, y una unión bancaria completa. Una vez superada la fase más aguda de esta crisis, las políticas económicas deberán abordar, fundamentalmente, los siguientes retos: reducir el déficit estructural y la deuda pública, y favorecer el crecimiento a largo plazo. La estrategia deberá descansar en un programa de consolidación presupuestaria de medio plazo —que, a través de una revisión del gasto y de la estructura y capacidad impositivas, permita sanear nuestras finanzas públicas—, así como en un programa de reformas estructurales que eleven la capacidad de crecimiento económico, con especial atención a la mejora del capital humano y al gasto eficiente en I+D.

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    Authors: Moreno Pérez, Carlos; Minozzo, Marco;

    Este documento estudia las reacciones de los mercados financieros de Estados Unidos a nuevas noticias de la prensa desde enero de 2019 hasta el primero de mayo de 2020. Con este fin, construimos medidas del contenido y del sentimiento de las noticias mediante el desarrollo de índices apropiados a partir de los titulares y fragmentos de The New York Times, utilizando técnicas de aprendizaje automático no supervisado. En particular, usamos el modelo Asignación Latente de Dirichlet para inferir el contenido (temas) de los artículos, y Word Embedding (implementado con el modelo Skip-gram) y K-Medias para medir su sentimiento (incertidumbre). De esta forma, elaboramos un conjunto de índices de incertidumbre temáticos diarios. Estos índices se utilizan luego para explicar el comportamiento de los mercados financieros de Estados Unidos mediante la implementación de un conjunto de modelos EGARCH. En conclusión, encontramos que dos de los índices de incertidumbre temáticos (uno relacionado con noticias del COVID-19 y otro con noticias de la guerra comercial) explican gran parte de los movimientos en los mercados financieros desde principios de 2019 hasta los cuatro primeros meses de 2020. Además, encontramos que el índice de incertidumbre temático relacionado con la economía y la Reserva Federal está positivamente relacionado con los mercados financieros, capturando las acciones de la Reserva Federal durante períodos de incertidumbre. This paper investigates the reactions of US financial markets to press news from January 2019 to 1 May 2020. To this end, we deduce the content and sentiment of the news by developing apposite indices from the headlines and snippets of The New York Times, using unsupervised machine learning techniques. In particular, we use Latent Dirichlet Allocation to infer the content (topics) of the articles, and Word Embedding (implemented with the Skip-gram model) and K-Means to measure their sentiment (uncertainty). In this way, we arrive at the definition of a set of daily topic-specific uncertainty indices. These indices are then used to find explanations for the behaviour of the US financial markets by implementing a batch of EGARCH models. In substance, we find that two topic-specific uncertainty indices, one related to COVID-19 news and the other to trade war news, explain the bulk of the movements in the financial markets from the beginning of 2019 to end-April 2020. Moreover, we find that the topic-specific uncertainty index related to the economy and the Federal Reserve is positively related to the financial markets, meaning that our index is able to capture actions of the Federal Reserve during periods of uncertainty.

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    Authors: Anghel, Brindusa; Lacuesta Gabarain, Aitor; Tagliati, Federico;

    Este documento analiza las competencias financieras de las empresas españolas de menos de 50 trabajadores (pequeñas empresas) a partir de una encuesta elaborada por el Banco de España entre marzo y mayo de 2021, que se engloba dentro de un proyecto desarrollado por la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE): International Network on Financial Education (OCDE/INFE). La encuesta incluye una serie de preguntas con el objetivo de medir las competencias financieras de las empresas (conocimientos, actitudes y comportamientos financieros), así como la tenencia de instrumentos financieros, el impacto de la crisis del COVID-19 sobre su actividad o el nivel de digitalización de la empresa. Estas preguntas deben de ser contestadas por el propietario de la empresa, siempre que tome alguna decisión financiera en relación con aquella. Los principales resultados de la encuesta apuntan a que, en general, en España los propietarios de las empresas con menos de 20 trabajadores y las empresas de servicios de alojamiento y hostelería, construcción y otros servicios personales (grupo heterogéneo de ramas, que incluiría empresas de educación, reparaciones o lavandería, entre otras) presentan unos conocimientos financieros bajos en comparación con las empresas de entre 20 y 49 trabajadores y con las del resto de los sectores. En cuanto a las actitudes financieras, los propietarios de las empresas de más de 10 trabajadores presentan una mayor tendencia a establecer objetivos financieros a largo plazo respecto a los propietarios de empresas de menos de 10 trabajadores. Algunos comportamientos financieros están menos generalizados en las empresas de menor tamaño (y especialmente en las de menos de 5 trabajadores), como, por ejemplo, disponer de estrategias en caso de robo y considerar opciones de distintos proveedores de productos o de servicios financieros. Finalmente, las pequeñas empresas españolas, independientemente de su tamaño, sobresalen por el bajo porcentaje de propietarios que han pensado en la financiación de su jubilación. El uso de los instrumentos de capital y de otras formas de financiación más recientes como los bonos sostenibles, los business angels o la financiación participativa) es marginal en las pequeñas empresas españolas. Asimismo, es limitado en estas empresas el empleo del seguro de daños materiales, y principalmente del de interrupción de negocio. No se observan diferencias importantes en los conocimientos, actitudes y comportamientos financieros según el género del propietario de la empresa. Además, en general, las competencias financieras medias en las pequeñas empresas mejoran con el nivel educativo tan solo si el propietario tiene formación concreta en temas relacionados con la empresa, la economía o las finanzas. Otras características que se asocian positivamente con las capacidades financieras, independientemente del nivel educativo, son disponer de 10 años de experiencia empresarial o tener un progenitor empresario. El impacto de la crisis del COVID-19 en el nivel de facturación, en los beneficios y en la deuda fue bastante similar en empresas con distintos grados de competencias financieras. Sin embargo, los efectos negativos en el empleo y en la liquidez fueron algo menores para los cuartiles más altos de competencias financieras de los propietarios. Adicionalmente, mayores conocimientos financieros estuvieron asociados a una probabilidad superior de solicitar y de obtener un nuevo préstamo o de beneficiarse de un aval público. Las empresas con menores conocimientos financieros sí utilizaron en mayor medida transferencias de renta, así como moratorias de alquiler. Finalmente, existe una relación positiva entre competencias financieras y mayor nivel de digitalización en la empresa con anterioridad a la pandemia. Sin embargo, no existe correlación de competencias financieras y un incremento de las actividades digitales tras el COVID-19. This paper analyses the financial competencies of Spanish enterprises with fewer than 50 employees (small enterprises) based on a survey conducted by the Banco de España between March and May 2021 as part of a project launched by the OECD (International Network on Financial Education, OECD/INFE). The survey includes a series of questions aimed at measuring firms’ financial competencies (financial knowledge, attitudes and behaviour) and the financial instruments held by them, the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on their activity and their level of digitalisation. It is the owners of the firms who should answer these questions insofar as it is they who make financial decisions in relation to their firm. The main results of the survey suggest that, in Spain, owners of enterprises with fewer than 20 employees have little financial knowledge compared with those of enterprises with between 20 and 49 employees. The same is true of firms in the accommodation and food service activities, construction and other personal service sectors (a heterogeneous group of sectors which would include firms in education, repairs or laundry services, among others) compared with firms in other sectors. In terms of financial attitudes, owners of firms with more than ten employees have a greater tendency to set long-term financial goals than owners of firms with fewer than ten employees. Some financial behaviours (such as having strategies in place in the event of theft or considering different options for their financial product and service providers) are less widespread among smaller firms, especially those with fewer than five employees. Lastly, the percentage of Spanish small enterprises, regardless of size, whose owners have thought about how to finance their retirement is remarkably low. The use of capital instruments and other more recent types of financing (such as sustainable bonds, business angels or crowdfunding) is marginal in small Spanish enterprises. Likewise, the use of property and, particularly, business interruption insurance is limited among these firms. There are no discernible, significant differences in financial knowledge, attitudes and behaviours in terms of the gender of the business owner. Also, in general, the average financial competencies in small enterprises improve with the level of educational attainment only if the owner has specific training in business, economics or finance. Other characteristics positively associated with financial competencies, irrespective of educational attainment, are having ten years of entrepreneurial experience or having an entrepreneur for a parent. The impact of the COVID-19 crisis on the level of turnover, profits and debt was quite similar for firms with different degrees of financial competencies. However, the negative impact on employment and liquidity was somewhat lower for the higher quartiles of owners’ financial competencies. Additionally, higher financial knowledge was associated with being more likely to apply for and obtain a new loan or benefit from a public guarantee. Firms with less financial knowledge did make greater use of income transfers and rental moratoria. Lastly, there is a positive correlation between financial competencies and a higher level of digitalisation in the firm pre-pandemic. However, there is no such correlation between financial competencies and digital activities following COVID-19.

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    Authors: Pérez Álvarez, Manuel A.;

    El Fondo Monetario Internacional (FMI) realizó en agosto de 2021 una nueva asignación de derechos especiales de giro (DEG), por un importe equivalente a 650 mm de dólares estadounidenses. Se trata de una cuantía significativa, que triplica los saldos actuales. En particular, para España ha supuesto un incremento de un 16 % de las reservas exteriores, así como de los activos frente al FMI, que alcanzarían un 22 % de las reservas en el balance del Banco de España, en comparación con el 10 % actual. El objetivo de esta expansión de los DEG es dar apoyo a un grupo de países con mayores dificultades para combatir el impacto de la pandemia de COVID-19, a lo que se ha unido una mayor necesidad de divisas para obtener suministros básicos, con un cierre de los mercados de capitales internacionales. Es previsible que la nueva asignación dinamice la operativa en DEG, dados su elevado importe, la acuciante necesidad de fondos en algunos países y el aprendizaje respecto a la asignación de 2009. En este documento se explican las características del uso de los DEG como fuente efectiva de liquidez, con la conclusión de que el modo en que se hace efectiva la emisión de este instrumento es mediante las transacciones, y de que es la asignación el presupuesto formal de su existencia. Por tanto, el aspecto clave para su efectividad será la realidad de las transacciones que se hagan para obtener liquidez en el tráfico internacional. Con el objetivo de hacer un seguimiento de su uso, se sugiere una ratio de su liquidez. Por otro lado, en relación con la magnitud de la asignación, y puesto que se realiza en función de las cuotas de cada país miembro del FMI, se observa un «acaparamiento» por parte de los países desarrollados, frente a los que muestran más dificultades en el acceso a los mercados, que hará inevitable la adopción de medidas que favorezcan la recirculación de los DEG para alcanzar sus fines, de modo que se complementen eficazmente las reservas disponibles en el marco del comercio internacional. In August 2021, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) made a new allocation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) equivalent to $650 billion. This significant amount has tripled the total existing stock of SDRs. For Spain it involves an increase of 16% in foreign reserves, and an increase in receivables from the IMF, which amount to 22% of the reserves on the balance sheet of the Banco de España, as compared with 10% at present. The purpose of this expansion of SDRs is to support a group of countries that are having most difficulty fighting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. These countries have a greater need for foreign exchange to obtain basic supplies just when they are shut out of international capital markets. The new allocation is likely to boost SDR transactions given its large amount, the urgent need for funds in some countries and the experience of the 2009 allocation. This paper explains the characteristics of the use of SDRs as an effective source of liquidity, concluding that the way in which the issuance of this instrument is made effective is by means of transactions, allocation being the formal prerequisite for their existence. Accordingly, the key to their effectiveness will be the transactions actually carried out to obtain liquidity in international business. A liquidity ratio is proposed for monitoring their use. With regard to the magnitude of the allocation and, given that it is based on the quotas of each IMF member country, the developed countries have received the bulk of the allocation, as opposed to those countries having greater difficulty accessing the markets. Accordingly, measures will have to be taken to promote the passing on of SDRs so that their purpose can be achieved and they effectively supplement the reserves available within the framework of international trade.

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    Authors: Pigozzi, Fabio; Wolfarth, Bernd; Cintron Rodriguez, Ana; Steinacker, Juergen Michael; +29 Authors

    The COVID-19 pandemic has created many challenges to ensure a safe environment for competitive sport. While modern medicine has already developed effective protocols for the treatment and prevention of the disease, there are serious concerns about hosting a sporting event of the scale of the Olympic Games, where more than 11¿000 athletes from over 200 nations are expected to participate. Accordingly, there have been many calls to cancel the Tokyo Olympic Games, also known as Tokyo 2020, in both the international press and the scientific literature. A recent perspective published in the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) highlights the complexity and risks of convening the Tokyo Olympic Games during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the many uncertainties, much has been learnt over the past 18 months and many policies trialled and tested to protect athletes during sports participation...

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    Authors: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC);

    La COVID-19 ens ha fet present com mai la nostra vulnerabilitat com a éssers humans, tant pel que fa a l'emergència sanitària com per les rèpliques economicosocials encara presents. Però, alhora, ha estimulat canvis, aliances i avenços d'una profunditat que tot just encertem a endevinar. I és que, com ens recorda el filòsof i professor de la UOC Miquel Seguró, tot i que la fragilitat s'acostuma a presentar com un tret negatiu, aquesta es troba íntimament vinculada a allò humà i, degudament integrada i viscuda, ens permet adaptar-nos a les novetats, ens esperona a col·laborar amb tercers i ens obliga a superar-nos. La COVID-19 nos ha hecho más evidente que nunca nuestra vulnerabilidad como seres humanos, tanto por la emergencia sanitaria como por las réplicas economico-sociales aún presentes. Pero, a la vez, ha estimulado cambios, alianzas y avances de una profundidad que apenas empezamos a adivinar. Y es que, como nos recuerda el filósofo y profesor de la UOC Miquel Seguró, aunque la fragilidad suele presentarse como un rasgo negativo, esta se encuentra íntimamente vinculada a lo humano y, debidamente integrada y vivida, nos permite adaptarnos a las novedades, nos incita a colaborar con terceros y nos obliga a superarnos. COVID-19 has made us more aware than ever of our vulnerability as human beings, both with regard to the health emergency and its ongoing economic and social consequences. That being said, it has also led to changes, alliances and progress, the depth of which we are just now starting to realize. And the truth is, as UOC philosopher and faculty member Miquel Seguró says, even though fragility is usually presented as a negative trait, it is closely linked to the human condition and, once accepted and experienced, allows us to adapt to whatever comes our way, pushes us to collaborate with others and forces us to do better.

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    Authors: Martínez-Bravo, Mónica; Sanz Alonso, Carlos;

    Mediante dos nuevas encuestas online llevadas a cabo en mayo y noviembre de 2020, en este documento estudiamos las consecuencias de las primeras etapas de la pandemia de COVID-19 para los hogares españoles. Documentamos un efecto importante y negativo sobre los ingresos de los hogares. En mayo de 2020, el hogar promedio había perdido el 16 % de sus ingresos prepandemia. Además, esta caída fue muy desigual: mientras que los hogares del quintil más rico perdieron el 6,8 % de sus ingresos, los del quintil más pobre perdieron el 27 %. También mostramos que la pandemia hizo más profunda la brecha de género en ingresos: en promedio, las mujeres experimentaron una pérdida de ingresos tres puntos porcentuales mayor que la de los hombres. Si bien esto es coherente con hallazgos anteriores de la literatura, en este trabajo documentamos que este efecto se debe a la evolución de los ingresos de las mujeres en hogares de ingresos medios. Finalmente, proporcionamos evidencia de que los españoles experimentaron descensos moderados en sus niveles de bienestar psicológico. Este efecto es similar para las personas de diferentes niveles de ingresos. Sin embargo, las razones que hay detrás de las pérdidas de bienestar difieren: las personas más ricas están más preocupadas por la pérdida de contacto con sus seres queridos, mientras que las personas de bajos ingresos es más probable que mencionen la pérdida de ingresos y del empleo como un motivo clave de deterioro emocional. Using two novel online surveys collected in May and November 2020, we study the consequences of the first stages of the COVID-19 pandemic on Spanish households. We document a large and negative effect on household income. By May 2020 the average individual lived in a household that had lost 16% of their pre-pandemic monthly income. Furthermore, this drop was highly unequal: while households in the richest quintile lost 6.8% of their income, those in the poorest quintile lost 27%. We also document that the pandemic deepened the gender-income gap: on average, women experienced a three-percentage-point larger income loss than men. While this is consistent with previous findings in the literature, in this paper we document that this effect is driven by women from middle-income households with kids. Finally, we provide evidence that Spanish individuals experienced moderate declines in their levels of psychological well-being. This effect is not different for individuals living in rich or poor households, but the reasons behind well-being losses do differ: richer individuals are more concerned about loss of contact with dear ones, while low-income individuals are more likely to mention loss of income and employment as a key source of emotional distress.

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    Authors: Gut, Ivo;

    Sesión 1. La vigilancia y el diagnóstico microbiológico de COVID-19. • Interaction of the virus and the host is very important • Virus needs to be handled in BSL2 laboratories • Host can present many predisposing low-risk contributing genetic factors – polygenic risk scores • Host can have rare variants that confer high risk – rare disease • Sequencing of the virus and host is possible • Data sharing accelerates discoveries • This can provide insight into the potential outcomes and guide treatment decisions No

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    Authors: Arce Hortigüela, Óscar Javier; Kataryniuk, Iván; Marín Bona, Paloma; Pérez García, Javier José;

    La Unión Europea (UE) requiere de una acción rápida, duradera y suficiente ante la crisis sanitaria y económica provocada por el Covid-19. Las respuestas dadas por el Banco Central Europeo (BCE) y el Consejo de la UE han sido efectivas para mitigar la incidencia de la crisis en el corto plazo y reducir los riesgos de su propagación, facilitando que los Estados miembros (EEMM) puedan movilizar un volumen significativo de recursos. No obstante, la dimensión de la crisis ha puesto en evidencia la falta de instrumentos clave de política económica comunes. En este documento se analizan las condiciones necesarias para una respuesta europea eficaz ante la crisis y sus posibles consecuencias futuras. En primer lugar, se esbozan los elementos básicos sobre los que debería pivotar la estrategia de recuperación, basada en dar una respuesta conjunta a los retos estructurales comunes —como la lucha contra el cambio climático, la digitalización, el aumento del nivel de inversión en salud pública y prevención sanitaria o una reestructuración de amplias áreas del tejido productivo—, con nuevos recursos y con un renovado impulso reformista. En segundo lugar, se detalla una propuesta para el diseño de un «Fondo de Recuperación» que permita movilizar recursos, con el doble objetivo de facilitar el mantenimiento de unas condiciones de financiación adecuadas para la deuda soberana de los EEMM —lo que exige dotar al Fondo de una capacidad de compra de títulos de deuda pública durante plazos dilatados— y de impulsar la financiación de proyectos específicos de naturaleza estructural afines a las necesidades estratégicas del conjunto de la UE. Este instrumento debe ser eficiente (regido por el principio de uso adecuado y proporcional de los recursos públicos), solidario (haciendo especialmente accesibles sus recursos a aquellos que más lo necesiten), equilibrado (eliminando riesgos de transferencias permanentes inducidos por comportamientos oportunistas de los miembros) y con una condicionalidad en el uso de sus recursos ligada a los propios objetivos de la estrategia de recuperación, con especial énfasis en potenciar las palancas de crecimiento. En la medida en que nace ligado a una estrategia europea de medio y largo plazo, el Fondo debería tener una vocación de vigencia durante un horizonte muy amplio, dando lugar posiblemente a una estructura permanente, y estar respaldado por el presupuesto de la UE, debidamente reforzado mediante recursos adicionales de los EEMM y por ingresos procedentes de la eventual implantación de nuevas figuras tributarias a escala de la UE. The European Union (EU) requires swift, lasting and sufficient action to combat the health and economic crisis triggered by COVID-19. The ECB and EU Council’s responses have been effective in mitigating the short-term impact of the crisis and reducing the risks of it becoming protracted by enabling the Member States (MSs) to mobilise a significant volume of funds. Nevertheless, the scale of the crisis has underlined the absence of key shared economic policy instruments. This article analyses the conditions required for an effective European response to the crisis and its possible consequences in the future. First, the article outlines the basic features which should underpin a recovery strategy based on providing a joint response to common structural challenges (the fight against climate change, digitalisation, higher investment in public health and disease prevention, and a restructuring of broad areas of the productive system) with fresh funds and a renewed reform drive. Second, a design proposal for a 'Recovery Fund' is set out. Funds will be mobilised with the twofold objective of maintaining suitable financing conditions for MSs’ sovereign debt (which requires giving the Fund the capacity to purchase government debt securities for an extended period of time) and boosting the financing of specific structural projects aligned with the strategic needs of the EU as a whole. This instrument must be efficient (governed by the principle of a suitable and proportionate use of public funds), show solidarity (by making its funds particularly available to those who most need them), be balanced (by eliminating permanent transfer risks resulting from the opportunistic behaviour of Member States) and have conditions attached to ensure that the funds are used to advance the objectives of the recovery strategy. Insofar as its creation is tied to a medium and long-term European strategy, the Fund’s effectiveness should be geared to covering a very extensive time frame, potentially laying the foundations for a permanent structure. And it should be backed by the EU budget, duly strengthened by additional funds from the MSs and receipts from the future introduction of new EU-wide taxes.

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    Authors: Brañas Garza, Pablo Ernesto; Jorrat, Diego; Alfonso Costillo, Antonio; Espín, Antonio M; +2 Authors

    Instructions: Exposure to the Covid-19 pandemic and economic decisions.

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